Unit 4- Social Psychology, Personality, Motivation, and Emotion Flashcards
1
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Dispositional Attribution
A
explaining someone’s behavior by attributing it to their internal characteristics, such as personality traits, abilities, or motivations, rather than considering external situational factors; essentially, blaming someone’s actions on their inherent nature instead of the environment around them.
2
Q
Mere Exposure Effect
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the psychological phenomenon where people tend to develop a preference for things or people they are repeatedly exposed to, simply because of familiarity, even if they initially had no strong opinion about them; essentially familiarity breeds fondness
3
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Central Route Persuasion
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attitude change path in which interested people focus on arguments and respond with favorable thoughts
4
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Peripheral Route Persuasion
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Attitude change path in which people are influenced by incidental cues such as a speaker’s attractiveness
5
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Cognitive Dissonance
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The tension we feel when our actions go against our attitudes so we often bring our attitudes into line with our actions
6
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Foot in the door phenomenon
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Tendency for people who first complied with a smaller request to later comply with a larger one
7
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Door in the face phenomenon
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Tendency for people to deny a large request right away
8
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Attribution
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People usually attribute others’ behavior either to their internal dispositions or to their external situations
9
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Fundamental Attribution error
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overestimating the influence of personality and underestimating the influence of situations
10
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False-Consensus effect
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Tendency of people to overestimate the level to which other people share their beliefs, attitudes, behaviors.
11
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Self-serving bias
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The common human tendency to attribute one’s successes to personal characteristics, and one’s failures to factors beyond one’s control
12
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Just-world phenomenon/bias
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Idea that good is rewarded and evil is punished
13
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Stereotypes
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a thought that can be adopted about specific types of individuals or certain ways of doing things
14
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Prejudice
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unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group—often a different cultural, ethnic, or gender group
15
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Discrimination
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Action(s) performed because of a prejudice
16
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Ethnocentrism
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the belief that one’s own group (ethnic, social, cultural) is the most important and superior to that of others.
17
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Out-group homogeneity bias
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one’s perception of out-group members as more similar to one another than are in-group members. “they are alike; we are diverse”.
18
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In-Group Bias
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The tendency to favor “our group” (the group we share a common identity with)
19
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Superordinate goals
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Shared goals between two segregated groups that overrides their differences by creating a common goal
20
Q
Frustration-aggression hypothesis
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The principle that frustration creates anger and anger can lead to aggression
21
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Bystander Effect
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The tendency for bystanders to be less likely to aid the victim when other bystanders are present
22
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Social Facilitation
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An increase in performance of a well learned task in the presence of others
23
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Conformity
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Adjusting ones thoughts and/or actions to coincide with the groups standards
24
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Obedience
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Compliance with an order, request, law, or an authority figure
25
Social Loafing
When members of a group working together put in less effort due to distributed responsibility
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Group polarization
Opinions and views of group members are strengthened through discussion
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Groupthink
When group members censor their opinions or knowledge on a topic in favor of harmony within the group
28
Deindividuation
The loss of self-awareness and control when in a group experiencing arousal
29
Social trap
When both sides oppose each other and pursue their purpose, but become caught in mutually destructive behavior
30
Social Reciprocity Norm
The expectation that people will help others that have helped them
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Social Responsibility Norm
The expectation that people will help those in dependent on them
32
Normative Social Influence
Where a person conforms to fit in with the group because they don't want to appear foolish or be left out. Normative social influence is usually associated with compliance, where a person changes their public behavior but not their private beliefs
33
Informational Social Influence
Where a person conforms because they have a desire to be right, and look to others who they believe may have more information. When we don't know an answer or how to act, we look to others assuming they know more than us.
34
Situational Attribution
explaining someone's behavior by attributing it to external factors or circumstances in their environment, rather than their internal personality traits.
35
Optimistic explanatory style
a person's tendency to explain negative events as being caused by external, temporary, and specific factors, essentially attributing setbacks to situational issues rather than personal flaws, and viewing them as fixable and not pervasive in their life
36
Pessimistic explanatory style
a tendency to explain negative events as being personal, permanent, and pervasive, meaning someone with this style attributes setbacks to internal factors, believes they will last a long time, and sees them as affecting many areas of their life, often leading to a more negative outlook on situations.
37
Actor observer bias
the tendency for people to attribute their own behavior to external factors (situational causes) while attributing the behavior of others to internal factors (dispositional traits)
38
Internal locus of control
the belief that a person's actions and choices directly influence the outcomes in their life, meaning they attribute their successes and failures primarily to their own efforts and abilities, rather than external factors like luck or fate; essentially, they feel they have a strong sense of control over their own destiny
39
External locus of control
the belief that outside forces, like luck, fate, or other people, are primarily responsible for the events in one's life, meaning individuals with this perspective feel they have little personal control over their outcomes and tend to attribute successes or failures to external factors rather than their own actions
40
Self-fulfilling prophecy
a psychological phenomenon where a person's belief or expectation about something unknowingly influences their behavior in a way that makes that expectation come true, essentially causing the prediction to materialize simply because they believe it will happen
41
Social Comparison
the process where individuals evaluate their own abilities, opinions, and beliefs by comparing themselves to others, often to gain a better understanding of their own self-worth and position within a social group
42
Relative deprivation
the feeling of being deprived or lacking something compared to others in one's social group, even if one's objective situation is not necessarily poor; essentially, it's the perception that one has less than what they believe they are entitled to based on comparisons to others, leading to feelings of discontent or injustice
43
Implicit attitude
an evaluation or feeling towards a person, object, or concept that occurs automatically and unconsciously, without conscious awareness, often influencing behavior and decisions despite the individual not being aware of holding such an attitude; essentially, an unconscious bias or preference towards something
44
Belief perseverance
the tendency for people to continue holding onto a belief even when presented with strong evidence that contradicts it, essentially sticking to their initial opinion despite proof to the contrary; it's a cognitive bias where people maintain their beliefs despite disconfirming information
45
Confirmation bias
the tendency to actively seek out, interpret, and remember information that confirms one's existing beliefs while ignoring or downplaying information that contradicts them, essentially reinforcing pre-existing opinions by selectively focusing on supporting evidence
46
Social norms
the unwritten rules and expectations about how individuals should behave in specific social situations, essentially acting as guidelines for acceptable conduct within a group or community
47
Social Influence Theory
the psychological concept that people tend to adjust their behaviors and attitudes to align with the perceived norms of the group they are in, meaning they are influenced by the actions and opinions of those around them, often changing their behavior to fit in or be accepted; this can manifest through conformity, obedience, and other social dynamics
48
Halo effect
the cognitive bias where a positive impression of one aspect of a person or thing leads to an overall positive perception of them, even if other aspects are not as positive, essentially judging the whole based on a single positive trait
49
Individualism
the principle of prioritizing one's own goals and needs over the needs of the group, essentially, placing value on the individual rather than the collective
50
Collectivism
a cultural perspective where the needs and goals of the group are prioritized above the needs of the individual, emphasizing interdependence and group harmony within a collective like a family, community, or nation
51
Multiculturalism
the idea of a society where multiple cultures coexist and are equally respected, celebrating the diversity of ethnicities and cultural identities within a community, while allowing each group to maintain their own unique characteristics and traditions
52
I/O Industrial Organizational Psychology
a branch of psychology that studies human behavior within the workplace, applying psychological principles to improve employee selection, training, motivation, teamwork, and overall organizational effectiveness within a company; essentially, it focuses on how to optimize human performance in a work setting
53
Burnout
a psychological syndrome characterized by emotional exhaustion, feelings of cynicism and detachment from one's work, and a reduced sense of personal accomplishment, typically resulting from prolonged exposure to high stress or excessive demands in a job or situation
54
Altruism
the selfless concern for the well-being of others, meaning an individual performs an action that benefits someone else without expecting personal gain or reward; essentially, putting the welfare of others before one's own
55
Prosocial behavior
voluntary actions intended to help others or benefit society as a whole, often including acts of kindness, sharing, donating, volunteering, and cooperating
56
Social debt
an emotional meta state which accumulates guilt from unpleasant social interactions. This guilt is abusively used by the subconscious mind and globally influenced by social judgment. It manifests in uncontrolled behavior to generate relief from artificial self-fulfillment.
57
Psychodynamic Theory of Personality
a psychological perspective that explains behavior by analyzing the interplay of unconscious mental forces, particularly drives, desires, and conflicts often rooted in childhood experiences, with a primary focus on the structures of the mind (id, ego, and superego) as outlined by Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory; essentially, it suggests that our personality is shaped by these unconscious forces that we may not be fully aware of, and that early life events play a crucial role in shaping our behavior as adults
58
Lewin: Approach- Approach Conflict
one of Kurt Lewin's basic types of conflict; conflict dilemma where an individual is attracted to 2 appealing goals; the stress in this type of conflict is the fact that in choosing one desirable option, the individual must give up another desirable option
59
Lewin: Approach-Avoidance conflict
one of Kurt Lewin's basic types of conflict; conflict dilemma where an individual is both attracted to and repelled by the same goal; the most common form of conflict; there is both good and bad about the goal; the tendency to avoid increases as an individual gets closer to the goal
60
Lewin: Avoidance- Avoidance conflict
one of Kurt Lewin's basic types of conflict; conflict dilemma where an individual is attracted to 2 possibilities are undesirable or threatening and do not any positive features; people tend to "escape" the situation or choose the possibility which is the least worst or wait for the situation to resolve the conflict for the individual
61
Lewin: multiple approach-avoidance conflict
A conflict involving a choice between two or more options, each of which has both positive and negative aspects
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Facial Feedback
The idea that facial expressions trigger the experience of emotion
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Motivation
Feelings or ideas that cause us to act toward a goal
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Instincts
automatic, involuntary, and unlearned responses. common motivation for animals, not in humans
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Arousal Theory
we are motivated by activities that help us achieve our needed level of stimulation
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Instinct Theory of Motivation
all organisms are born with innate biological tendencies that help them survive. This theory suggests that instincts drive most behaviors of animals
67
Drive Reduction Theory of Motivation
the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need
68
Homeostasis
is the tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; theregulation of any aspect of body chemistry.
69
Yerkes- Dodson Law
we might perform well at an easy task with a very high arousal level the same high level would worsen our performance on a difficult task- moderate arousal is best for most tasks
70
Basal Metabolic Rate
This is the rate that we burn energy when at rest. (Ex:)When semi-starved, people will see their basal metabolic rate drop by about a quarter. And thus, their weight drops then stabilizes at about 75% of their normal weight.
71
Environment Eating Cues
Some of us eat even though our hypothalamus is not sending us any cues. If you are motivated to eat by external cues, such as stress, smell, or just the fact that food is in front of you, then you are en external. If you are more motivated to eat by internal cues, empty stomach, feelings of hunger, then you are an internal.
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Hypothalamus
Part of the brain that controls hunger and thirst (receives neural messages from the liver)
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Self-Actualization
A realization of fulfillment of one's talents and potential
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Incentive theory of motivation
Theory that focuses on motivation, involves concepts of conditioning, homeostasis and positive reinforcement
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Extrinsic Motivation
Behavior that is driven by external rewards such as money
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Intrinsic Motivation
Behaviors that are driven by internal rewards
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Self-Efficacy
One's belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish a task
78
Humanistic Theories of Personality
Rogers, Maslow and Kelly Theories that personality is based on human needs and growth
79
Self-concept
an idea of the self constructed from the beliefs one holds about oneself and the responses of others
80
Unconditional Positive Regard
attitude of grace, an attitude that values us even knowing our failings
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Trait Theories of Personality
Combination and integration of traits form a personality
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Big Five Personality Traits
openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism are the traits used to determine personality
83
Factor Analysis
A statistically procedure that Ids clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to ID different dimensions of a performance that underlie ones total score
84
Self Serving Bias
A readiness to preceive oneself favorably.
85
Reciprocal Determinism
a theory proposed by Albert Bandura that states a person's behavior is influenced by and influences both their internal factors (thoughts, feelings) and their external environment, meaning all three elements constantly interact and impact each other in a cyclical manner; essentially, your behavior can shape your environment, and your environment can shape your behavior, creating a continuous feedback loop
86
Personality- definition
A person’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.
87
Ego Defensive mechanisms
A defence mechanism is a coping technique that reduces anxiety arising from unacceptable or potentially harmful stimuli. Defence mechanisms are unconscious and are not to be confused with conscious coping strategies. Sigmund Freud was one of the first proponents of this construct.
88
Repression
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.
89
Displacement
psychoanalytic defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet.
90
Reaction formation
In psychoanalytic theory, defensive process (defense mechanism) in which emotions and impulses which are anxiety-producing or perceived to be unacceptable are mastered by exaggeration.
91
Rationalization
Psychoanalytic defense mechanism that offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions.
92
Regression
psychoanalytic defense mechanism in which an individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated.
93
Denial
psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people refuse to believe or even to perceive painful realities.
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Sublimation
psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people re-channel their unacceptable impulses into socially approved activities.
95
Projection
a defense mechanism where someone unconsciously attributes their own unacceptable thoughts, feelings, or behaviors to another person, essentially "projecting" their own internal state onto someone else to avoid confronting it within themselves
96
Social-Cognitive Theory
a psychological perspective that suggests people learn behaviors primarily through observing others, interacting with their environment, and considering their own thoughts and beliefs, emphasizing the dynamic interplay between personal factors, behavior, and the environment
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Self-esteem
a person's overall evaluation of their own worth, essentially how positively or negatively they feel about themselves, encompassing their beliefs about their abilities, value, and self-image
98
Personality Inventory
a self-report questionnaire where individuals respond to a series of statements designed to assess various aspects of their personality traits, usually by indicating whether the statement applies to them as "true" or "false," allowing psychologists to gauge their overall personality profile
99
Optimal Level of Arousal
the ideal level of physiological and psychological alertness where an individual is motivated to maintain, meaning not too aroused (stressed) and not too relaxed (bored)
100
Self-Determination Theory
a motivational theory that proposes individuals are most motivated when their basic psychological needs for autonomy (feeling in control), competence (feeling capable), and relatedness (feeling connected to others) are fulfilled, leading to intrinsic motivation and personal growth
101
Sensation-Seeking Theory
a motivational trait where individuals actively search for experiences, thrills or adventures, experience disinhibition, and boredom susceptibility.
102
Ghrelin
a hormone primarily produced in the stomach that is often called the "hunger hormone" because it signals the brain to stimulate appetite and the desire to eat when stomach is empty
103
Leptin
a hormone produced by fat cells that signals the hypothalamus about the body's fat stores, essentially acting as a "satiety" signal to regulate appetite; when leptin levels are high, it indicates the body has enough fat and suppresses hunger
104
Pituitary Gland
the pituitary gland is not directly responsible for hunger, but it is controlled by the hypothalamus, which is the brain region that regulates hunger signals by releasing hormones that influence appetite through the pituitary gland
105
Affect (emotion)
the observable expression of an emotion, encompassing the outward display of feelings through facial expressions, body language, and tone of voice, essentially describing how someone "appears" to be feeling, rather than the internal emotional experience itself; it is often used interchangeably with the term "emotion" in this context
106
broaden-and-build theory
positive emotions expand an individual's momentary thought-action repertoire, allowing them to consider a wider range of ideas and actions, which in turn builds personal resources like social connections, physical health, and cognitive skills over time, essentially enhancing their overall well-being
107
Universal emotions
a set of emotions, typically identified as happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, and disgust, that are believed to be recognized and expressed through facial expressions across different cultures
108
Display rules
the socially learned norms that govern how and when individuals express their emotions, varying significantly across different cultures, essentially dictating what emotions are appropriate to show in a given situation and to what degree
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elicitors
stimuli, like a specific event, image, or person's facial expression, that trigger or "elicit" a particular emotional response in an individual; essentially, anything that causes someone to feel a specific emotion
