Unit 0- Research Methods Flashcards
Replication
Repeating the essence of a research study.usually with different participants in in different situations to see whether the basic findings extend to different participants and circumstances.
Dependent Variable
The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable. It is the thing being measured.
Operational Definition
Statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures
Population
All the cases in a group being studied, from school samples may be drawn
Random Sample
A sample that fairly represents a population because each member had an equal chance of inclusion
Random Assignment
Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups
Experimental Group
In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable
Control Group
In an experiment, the group that isn’t exposed to the treatment (independent variable); contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment
Confounding variables
Outside variables that can alter the result of the experiment.
Correlation Research
A study to show how closely two things vary to each other.
Double-Blind Procedure
During an experiment where both the experimenter and participants are blind about if they receive a placebo or not. and the
Naturalistic Observation
Watches behavior and describes it. Does not seek to explain behavior.
Experimenter Bias
A process where the scientists performing the research influence the results, in order to portray a certain outcome.
Single-blind Procedure
An experiment where the experimenter knows what is the placebo and what isn’t but the participants do not.
Statistical Significance
A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.
Informed Consent
An ethical principle that research participants must be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.
Debriefing
The post-experimental explanation of a study; an ethical requirement.
Institutional Review Board
Committee designated to review, monitor, and approve behavioral research involving humans.
Mean
The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores
Median
The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it
Mode
The most frequently occurring scores in a distribution
Range
The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
Standard deviation
A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
Normal curve or normal distribution
A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean and fewer and fewer near the extremes.
Case Study
An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.
Placebo Effect
Experimental results caused by expectation alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.
Scatterplot
A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation. (Little scatter indicates high correlation)
Correlation Coefficient
A statistic index of the relationship between two things. (From -1 to +1). The closer the value is to 1, the stronger the correlation.
Hindsight Bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.
Hypothesis
a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.
Independent variable
the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
Confirmation Bias
people’s tendency to process information by looking for, or interpreting, information that is consistent with their existing beliefs. Confirmation bias During presidential elections, people tend to seek information that paints the candidate they support in a positive light, while dismissing any information that paints them in a negative light
Overconfidence
a psychological bias that describes when someone has an unrealistic belief about their own abilities or knowledge:
Overestimation: People may overestimate their own performance or abilities
Overplacement: People may overestimate their performance relative to others
Overprecision: People may be too precise in expressing their certainty about their beliefs
Experiment
An experiment is an investigation in which a hypothesis is scientifically tested. An independent variable (the cause) is manipulated in an experiment, and the dependent variable (the effect) is measured; any extraneous variables are controlled
Meta-Analysis
a statistical method that combines the results of multiple studies on a similar topic to draw conclusions that are more reliable than those from individual studies
Falsifiable hypothesis (falsifiability)
a hypothesis that can be disproven through an experiment or observation. Falsifiability is a fundamental principle of the scientific method and is considered a key feature of science
Confounding Variable
an extraneous factor that is related to both the independent and dependent variables in a study, potentially distorting the observed relationship between them and making it difficult to accurately determine the true cause of the effect on the dependent variable
Sample
a group of people chosen to represent a larger population in a study
Representative Sample
a sample from a larger group that accurately represents the characteristics of a larger population
Convenience Sample
a non-probability sampling technique that involves selecting participants based on their availability, willingness, or ease of access
Sampling Bias
occurs when some members of a population are systematically more likely to be selected in a sample than others
Generalizability
a measure of how applicable the results of a study are to a wider group of people or situations. A study with good generalizability has findings that can be applied to many different types of people or situations.
Social-Desirability Bias
a type of response bias that occurs when people answer questions in a way that they think will be viewed favorably by society, rather than how they actually feel or what they’ve experienced.
Qualitative Research
a method of research that produces descriptive (non-numerical) data, such as observations of behavior or personal accounts of experiences.
Structured Interview
a research method in psychology that uses a set of predetermined questions to collect information from a subject. It’s also known as a standardized interview, patterned interview, or planned interview.
Quantitative Research
a method of scientific inquiry that involves collecting and analyzing numerical data to identify patterns in behavior
Likert Scale
a rating system used to measure attitudes, opinions, or behaviors in psychology. Typical answer options include “strongly agree,” “agree,” “neutral,” “disagree,” and “strongly disagree”.
Directionality Problem
the limitation in correlational research where it’s impossible to determine which of two variables is causing changes in the other, only that a relationship exists between them; essentially, it means you can’t tell if Variable A is influencing Variable B or if Variable B is influencing Variable A
Third Variable Problem
refers to a situation where a seemingly causal relationship between two variables is actually influenced by a third, unmeasured variable that affects both of them, leading to a misleading interpretation of the correlation between the original two variables
Correlation and Causation
“correlation” means that two variables appear to change together, indicating a relationship between them, while “causation” means that one variable directly influences another, establishing a cause-and-effect link; essentially, correlation does not imply causation, meaning just because two things are correlated does not mean one causes the other.
Self-Report Bias
the deviation between the self-reported and true values of the same measure. The difference between the actual number of cookies you ate and the number you claim to have eaten.
Variation
a statistical measurement that describes how spread out or clustered together data points are in a distribution
Percentile Rank
a statistical measurement that compares a score to others in a distribution to determine the percentage of scores that are lower than the score in question
Skewness/Skewed Distribution
a measure of how asymmetrically a set of numbers, measurements, or scores are distributed around a central point. Positive skew is skewed toward higher values, Negative skew toward lower values.
Bimodal Distribution
A bimodal distribution is a statistical distribution with two distinct peaks, or modes, that indicate the presence of two groups or processes within a set of data.
Regression toward the mean
the statistical phenomenon where extremely high or low scores on a measure tend to be closer to the average score when measured again, meaning that extreme outliers will naturally move closer to the group mean over time due to random variation; essentially, extreme results are less likely to be repeated and will usually fall closer to the average
Informed Assent
Informed assent is a process that allows minors to agree to participate in research or clinical trials when they are not yet old enough to provide legally valid informed consent
Peer Review
a process that involves experts in the field reviewing research before it is published.
Replication
the process of repeating a previous research study to verify or confirm the original findings by reproducing similar results using similar methods and conditions
Protection from harm (research)
the ethical principle that researchers must take necessary steps to ensure participants are not exposed to any physical, psychological, or social harm as a result of their involvement in a study
Confidentiality/anonymity of data
“confidentiality” refers to the ethical principle that a researcher must protect the identity of participants by not disclosing any personal information about them, while “anonymity” means that the researcher does not even know the participants’ identities, making it impossible to link responses back to a specific individual
deception (in research)
the act of intentionally misleading research participants about the purpose, procedures, or conditions of a study, essentially withholding information to get more authentic and unbiased reactions from them, although it is considered ethically controversial due to concerns about informed consent; researchers must carefully justify its use and always debrief participants afterwards to address any potential harm.
Confederates (Research)
an aide of the experimenter who poses as a participant but whose behavior is rehearsed prior to the experiment
Framing (surveys)
the practice of designing survey questions where the same information is presented in different ways (positive or negative framing) to see how the change in wording affects respondents’ answers
Effect Size
a statistical measure that indicates the strength or magnitude of a difference between two groups in a study, essentially telling you how significant the observed effect is, beyond just whether it was statistically significant or not; a larger effect size means a more substantial difference between the groups being compared
Positive Correlation
positive correlation is when the two variables move in the same direction. In other words, a positive correlation is when an increase in one variable is accompanied by an increase in another variable
Negative Correlation
refers to a relationship between two variables where as one variable increases, the other variable decreases, meaning they move in opposite directions
