Unit 1- Biological Bases of Behavior Flashcards
Heredity
the passing down of traits from parents to offspring through genetic information, essentially meaning the biological process of inheriting characteristics from one generation to the next via genes
Synapse
The meeting point between neurons where neurotransmitters are released
Reuptake
The sending neuron reabsorbs the excess neurotransmitters.
Endorphins
-Brains own naturally occurring opiates. -Several types of neurotransmitter molecules similar to morphine in response to pain and vigorous exercise -“Good feelings” or painkillers
Endocrine System
The body’s “slow chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
Hormones
Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues
Pituitary gland
-Master gland of the Endocrine system -Influences the release of hormones in other glands -Releases hormones that influence growth
Somatic Nervous System
The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles.
Autonomic Nervous System
The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and muscles of the internal organs such as the heart. Operates autonomously.
Sympathetic Nervous System
The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.
Acetylcholine
is one of the best-understood neurotransmitters. In addition to its role in learning and memory, ACh is the messenger at every junction between a motor neuron and skeletal muscle. When ACh is released to our muscle cell receptors, the muscle contracts. If ACh transmission is blocked, as happens during some kinds of anesthesia, the muscles cannot contract and we are paralyzed.
Threshold
the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
Lesion
Selectively destroying small clusters of normal or defective cells in the brain.
EEG
An amplified readout of electrical pulses while your brain is at work. Commonly used in sleep studies.
Central Nervous System
Brain and spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System
The nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord
Axon
The long threadlike part of a nerve cell along which impulses are conducted from the cell body to other cells
Myelin Sheath
A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next
Parasympathetic Nervous System
The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body
Dopamine
a neurotransmitter, a chemical messenger in the brain, primarily associated with feelings of pleasure, reward, motivation, and movement, playing a key role in the brain’s reward system; its release is often triggered by pleasurable activities like eating, sex, or achieving a goal.
Serotonin
a neurotransmitter that plays a crucial role in regulating mood, sleep, appetite, and overall emotional well-being, with low levels often associated with depression and other mood disorders
Neurotransmitters
Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. Neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.
Action Potential
a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.
Corpus callosum
Axon fibers connecting the two cerebral cortex
Cerebellum
The “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance.
Hypothalamus
Controls the endocrine system, as well as metabolic functions like libido, body temperature, hunger, and thirst
Medulla
The base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.
Brainstem
The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal core swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions.
Left hemisphere
Controls right side of the body, responsible for logic, speech and mathematical thinking
fMRI (Functional MRI)
Produces a live image monitoring blood flow. Shows brain function.
Temporal Lobe
Portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear
Brain plasticity
The brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience
Limbic system
border (“limbus”) between the brain’s older parts and the cerebral hemispheres— the two halves of the brain
Amygdala
Influence aggression and fear
Cerebral cortex
The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center.
Right Hemisphere
-Controls left side of the body -spatial tasks, creative tasks, integrating sense of self, detecting emotions
Motor cortex
At the rear of frontal lobe that controls voluntary movement.
Sensory cortex
Area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensation.
Identical Twins
Twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms.
Fraternal Twins
Twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs, they are genetically not closer than brothers and sisters, but they share fetal environment.
Parietal lobe
The home of somatosensory processing of sensations in the skin and muscles of the body
Occipital lobe
Home of the visual processing
Hippocampus
Involved in the transfer of memories from short term/working memory into long-term memory.
Wernicke’s Area
Controls language reception-a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe.
Neuron
Individual nerve cell
Sensory Neuron
Carry messages from the body’s tissues to the brain and spinal cord
Motor Neuron
Carry messages from the brain and spinal cord to the body’s tissues
Interneurons
The brain’s internal communication neurons
Reticular activating system
Midbrain region that controls bodily arousal and our ability to focus
Thalamus
Our brain’s sensory relay station, receives information from our senses and sends it to the appropriate areas
Frontal Lobe
Our brain’s executive functioning center. Responsible for reasoning and emotional control
Broca’s Area
Area of the brain that allows us to move our muscles to produce speech, damage would lead to difficulty pronouncing words
Insomnia
Recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.
Narcolepsy
A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The suffer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.
Sleep Apnea
A sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings. Obesity is a risk factor. Treated with a CPAP machine.
Depressants
Drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.
Alcohol
A depressant drug, calms neural activity and slows body functions.
Stimulants
Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.
Caffeine
A stimulant drug, the world’s most widely consumed psychoactive substance.
Amphetamine
Drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing sped up body functions and associated energy and mood changes.
Electroencephalograph (EEG)
A machine that records rapid eye movement and brain wave patterns. It’s used to study sleep patterns.
Hypnagogic Sensations
Occurs in stage 1 of sleep. It’s when your body may suddenly jerk or when your floating weightlessly. These sensations may later be converted into memories.
NREM Stage 2 Sleep
Sleep spindles appear on EEG and you start to relax more deeply during this stage.
NREM Stage 3 Sleep
Your brain emits large, slow delta waves. You are hard to awaken during this stage. Bed wetting and sleep walking are most likely to occur in this stage.
Consciousness
Awareness of ourselves and our environment. Examples: States of Consciesness Sleep, wake, altered states (drugs, daydreaming, hypnosis)
Circadian Rhythms
Biological clock, regular body rhythms
Sleep
Periodic, natural loss of consciousness. Not the same as unconsciousness in coma or hibernation.
REM Sleep
Dream sleep (vivid dreams) Rapid eye movement sleep Muscles are relaxed while other body systems are active
Activation-synthesis theory
Neural activity is random, and dreams are our brains trying to understand it.
Somnambulism (sleepwalking)
Performing motor acts while sleeping and then not remembering when you awaken. Happens during deep sleep (NREM stage 3)
REM Rebound
The tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation.
Psychoactive drugs
A chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods
Tolerance
The diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the use to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug’s effect
Withdrawal
The discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug
Cocaine
Central nervous system stimulant that depletes the brain of dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine
Nicotine
Highly addictive, mild stimulant found in tobacco.
Opiates
Opium and its derivatives. Depress neural functioning and cause pain relief and anxiety relief. Highly addictive. Also known as Narcotics.
Hallucinogens
Drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory experiences in the absence of sensory input. LSD and marijuana fall under this category.
LSD
A powerful hallucinogen that can cause vivid hallucinations
Nature
the genetic or biological factors that influence an individual’s development and behavior, essentially meaning the inherited traits passed down from parents, as opposed to environmental influences (“nurture”)
Environmental Factors (Nurture)
external influences like physical surroundings, social interactions, cultural norms, and life experiences that shape an individual’s behavior and development
Evolutionary Perspective
a psychological approach that explains human behavior by examining how it has been shaped over time through natural selection and adaptation, essentially suggesting that many of our behaviors today exist because they increased our ancestors’ chances of survival and reproduction in their environment
Eugenics
the practice of selectively breeding humans to improve the genetic quality of a population by encouraging reproduction of individuals with desired traits and discouraging those with undesirable traits
Twin Studies
a research method that compares identical twins to fraternal twins to assess the relative contributions of genetics and environment on a particular trait or behavior, by observing how similar they are despite having different environmental experiences while sharing varying degrees of genetic similarity; essentially trying to understand how much of a trait is “nature” versus “nurture.”
Family Studies
a research method where psychologists examine the characteristics and behaviors of individuals within a family unit (parents, siblings, children) to assess the potential genetic influence on certain traits or disorders, essentially looking to see if a specific characteristic “runs in the family” by comparing similarities between family members with shared genetics.
Adoption Studies
a research method where scientists compare the traits of adopted individuals to both their biological parents (genetic influence) and adoptive parents (environmental influence) to understand the relative contributions of nature (genetics) and nurture (environment) on various psychological characteristics
Neurons
a nerve cell, considered the basic functional unit of the nervous system, responsible for receiving, processing, and transmitting electrical signals throughout the body by communicating with other neurons through synapses
Glial Cells
non-neuronal cells found in the central nervous system that primarily function to support, protect, and nourish neurons, essentially acting as the “glue” that holds the nervous system together
Reflex Arc
the neural pathway that controls a reflex action, essentially the sequence of neurons involved in an automatic, involuntary response to a stimulus, often occurring via the spinal cord without direct involvement from the brain; it includes sensory neurons receiving the stimulus, interneurons in the spinal cord, and motor neurons triggering the response in a muscle or gland
Depolarization
the process where a neuron’s electrical charge shifts, due to an influx of positive ions, which allows for the initiation of an action potential (nerve impulse) to occur; essentially, it’s the change in membrane potential that enables a neuron to fire a signal
Refractory Period
the brief time period immediately following a neuron firing an action potential, during which the neuron cannot fire again
Resting Potential
refers to the electrical charge of a neuron when it is not actively sending signals
Multiple Sclerosis
a disease where the body’s immune system attacks the myelin sheath, the protective covering around nerve fibers in the central nervous system, disrupting communication between the brain and other parts of the body, leading to symptoms like muscle weakness, impaired vision, and coordination difficulties
Myasthenia Gravis
a chronic autoimmune disorder where the body’s immune system attacks the receptors at the neuromuscular junction, causing muscle weakness and fatigue
Excitatory neurotransmitter
a chemical messenger that increases the likelihood of a neuron firing an action potential
Inhibitory neurotransmitter
a chemical messenger released by a neuron that decreases the likelihood of the receiving neuron firing an action potential
norepinephrine
neurotransmitter primarily associated with the “fight or flight” response, regulating arousal, alertness, attention, and mood, often increasing in situations of stress, leading to physical changes like increased heart rate and blood pressure
glutamate
the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, meaning it stimulates nerve cells and is crucial for functions like learning, memory, and cognition
GABA
considered the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain, meaning it slows down or reduces neural activity, playing a key role in calming the body and regulating anxiety levels
Substance P
a neurotransmitter involved in transmitting pain signals, meaning it plays a key role in the perception of pain throughout the nervous system
Adrenaline
a hormone released by the adrenal glands during stressful situations, triggering the “fight or flight” response by increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar levels
Leptin
a hormone produced by fat cells that signals the hypothalamus in the brain about the body’s fat levels, essentially acting as a “satiety” signal to regulate appetite; when leptin levels are high, it indicates the body has sufficient fat stores and reduces hunger
Ghrelin
a hormone primarily produced in the stomach that signals hunger to the brain, often called the “hunger hormone”; when the stomach is empty, ghrelin levels rise, stimulating appetite and the desire to eat
Melatonin
a hormone that primarily regulates sleep-wake cycles by helping to control the body’s circadian rhythm, essentially signaling when it’s time to sleep by increasing in levels during darkness; it is often referred to as the “sleep hormone.”
Oxytocin
a hormone primarily associated with social bonding, trust, empathy, and feelings of love, playing a key role in childbirth and lactation, and often referred to as the “love hormone.”
Agonist
a substance that binds to a receptor on a neuron and mimics the action of a natural neurotransmitter, essentially activating the receptor and producing a physiological response similar to the neurotransmitter it is mimicking
Antagonist
a substance that blocks or inhibits the activity of a neurotransmitter by binding to its receptor site, preventing it from exerting its normal effects on the brain; essentially, it acts as a blocker, decreasing the neurotransmitter’s influence.
Reuptake Inhibitor
a type of drug that prevents the reabsorption of neurotransmitters at the synapse, effectively increasing the amount of that neurotransmitter available to bind with receptor sites on the receiving neuron, leading to a prolonged signal transmission; a common example is a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) which blocks the reuptake of serotonin, often used to treat depression
Marijuana
The most commonly used hallucinogen: something that causes changes in perceptions of reality; loss of identity and vivid fantasies
Heroin
considered depressants because they depress neural functions. As the nervous system is slowed, the individual may feel a sense of pleasure
Dependence (addiction)
a state where an individual relies on a substance or behavior to function normally, experiencing withdrawal symptoms when that substance or behavior is removed, encompassing both physical and psychological reliance on it; essentially, becoming addicted to something and unable to function without it
Reward Center
a network of brain structures, primarily within the limbic system, responsible for processing pleasure and positive reinforcement, motivating individuals to repeat behaviors associated with reward
Association Areas
regions of the cerebral cortex that receive information from multiple sensory areas, integrating it to perform complex cognitive functions like learning, memory, perception, and language
Prefrontal Cortex
the part of the brain located at the very front of the frontal lobe, responsible for higher-level cognitive functions like planning, decision-making, working memory, personality expression, and controlling complex behaviors, often referred to as “executive functions.”
Hemispheres
the two halves of the cerebrum, the largest part of the brain
Split Brain Research
the study of patients who have had their corpus callosum surgically severed, effectively disconnecting the two hemispheres of the brain, allowing researchers to investigate the specialized functions of each hemisphere by presenting stimuli separately to each side; this procedure is often done to treat severe epilepsy. Information presented to the right field of vision is processed in the linguistic left hemisphere. Information processed in the left field of vision can only be dictated with the left hand.
Aphasia
a language disorder that impairs a person’s ability to communicate effectively, either through speaking, writing, or understanding language, caused by damage to the brain areas responsible for language processing
Contralateral Processing or Contralateral hemispheric organization
the brain’s organization where each hemisphere primarily controls the opposite side of the body, meaning the left hemisphere controls the right side of the body and vice versa
Wakefulness
a state of consciousness characterized by alertness, awareness, and responsiveness to external stimuli, essentially meaning when someone is fully conscious and actively engaged with their surroundings
Jet Lag
a temporary disruption of one’s circadian rhythm (internal body clock) caused by rapid travel across multiple time zones, leading to symptoms like fatigue, disorientation, and difficulty sleeping, often experienced after long flights
Shift Work
a work schedule where employees work at different times outside of the traditional daylight hours, often involving rotating shifts between day, evening, and night, which can disrupt circadian rhythms and potentially lead to sleep disturbances and other health issues
NREM Stage 1- Initial Stage 1 Sleep
the first stage of non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep, considered the transition phase between wakefulness and sleep, characterized by a gradual slowing down of brain waves and bodily activity, often accompanied by hypnic jerks (muscle twitches), the initial stage of drifting off to sleep.
Consolidation Theory
the idea that memories are strengthened and transformed from short-term to long-term storage through a process called “consolidation,” which often occurs during sleep, where neural connections related to the memory are reinforced and stabilized in the brain
Restoration Theory
the idea that sleep serves as a crucial function to replenish the body’s depleted resources, allowing for tissue repair and chemical restoration that occurs during sleep, essentially “recharging” the body after daily activities; it is often considered the primary reason why we need sleep
REM sleep behavior disorder
a sleep disorder where a person physically acts out their dreams during REM sleep due to a lack of the usual muscle paralysis that occurs during this stage, often resulting in movements like kicking, punching, or yelling while asleep
Light Intensity and Wavelength
Light intensity affects how bright an object appears, and the color or hue is affected by the light wavelength in the visual color spectrum an object reflects. Objects that appear black actually absorb all colors, while objects that are white reflect all light wavelengths. The blue sky absorbs all colors but blue, which it reflects.
Transduction
Conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensations, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.
Sensory adaptation/habituation
Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.
Sensation
Sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.
Lens
focuses incoming light rays into an image
Conduction hearing loss
Hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea
Gate control theory
The theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The “gate” is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain
Frequency Theory
In hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense it’s pinch.
Sensorineural Deafness
Hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea’a receptor cells or to the auditory nerves.
Accommodation
The process by which the lens bends and focuses the rays of light on the retina
Blind spot
The point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a “blind” spot because no receptor cells are located there.
Optic nerve
The nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.
Afterimages
After you stare at a color for a certain amount of time and then you stare at a blank wall you will see the opposite color. Opposite colors are red-green, yellow-blue, and white-black.
Rods
Retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision when cones don’t respond.
Gustation
Tasting
Vestibular sense
The sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance
Retina
The photosensitive inner surface on the back of the eye, contains the rods and cones
Cones
Retinal receptor cells near the center of retina. Function in daylight, responsible for color and detailed vision.
Fovea
Cluster of cones in the center of retina, our area of central focus of vision
Trichromatic theory
Implies that the retina has three types of color receptors, red, green, and blue
Hue
The color we see depends on the wavelength of light
Intensity
The amplitude of the wave of light determines the brightness of the color we see
Kinesthetic Sense (Kinesthesis)
Our sense of body position that is communicated to our brain from our bones and joints
Absolute Threshold
The minimum amount of stimulation necessary to detect a particular light, sound, pressure, taste, or odor 50 percent of the time
Just Noticeable Difference (jnd)
The minimum difference a person can detect between two stimuli 50 percent of the time
Weber’s Law
The principle related to just noticeable difference that in order for two stimuli to be perceived as different they must differ by a constant percentage, not a constant amount. Touch/weight is 2% difference for example.
Sensory Interaction
the phenomenon where different senses work together and influence each other, creating a unified perception of the world around us; essentially, how our senses like sight, smell, taste, touch, and hearing combine to provide a complete understanding of a stimulus, like how the smell and appearance of food contribute to its perceived flavor
Synesthesia
a neurological condition where stimulation of one sense involuntarily triggers a perception in another sense, meaning someone might experience a color when they hear a sound, taste a word, or see a number as a specific color; essentially, their brain mixes sensory experiences that are usually kept separate.
Nearsightedness
also known as myopia, is a visual condition where a person can see close objects clearly but has difficulty seeing distant objects due to the focal point of light landing in front of the retina, rather than directly on it,
Farsightedness
refers to a visual condition where the focus of light entering the eye falls behind the retina, causing blurry vision when looking at close objects, due to an abnormally short eyeball shape
Light and Dark Adaptation
“light adaptation” refers to the process of the eyes adjusting to bright light after being exposed to dim light, while “dark adaptation” is the process of the eyes adjusting to dim light after being exposed to bright light; essentially, it’s the ability of the eye to change its sensitivity to light depending on the surrounding illumination level, primarily facilitated by the different functions of rod and cone cells in the retina.
Red Cones
a specific type of photoreceptor cell in the retina that is primarily sensitive to long wavelengths of light, essentially detecting the color red
Green Cones
a specific type of photoreceptor cell in the retina that is primarily sensitive to medium wavelengths of light; seeing green
Blue Cones
a specific type of photoreceptor cell in the retina that is primarily sensitive to short (blue) wavelengths of light
Red/Green Ganglion Cells
a type of retinal ganglion cell that is particularly sensitive to the colors red and green, playing a key role in our perception of these colors; they are part of the “opponent process theory” of color vision, where certain cells are excited by one color and inhibited by its complementary color (like red vs. green) which allows us to distinguish between them.
Blue/Yellow Ganglion Cells
a specific type of ganglion cell in the retina that is primarily responsible for detecting color information related to the blue-yellow spectrum, according to the opponent-process theory of color vision; these cells are activated by blue light and inhibited by yellow light, and vice versa, allowing us to perceive these colors as opposites
Black/White Ganglion Cells
the specific type of ganglion cells in the retina that are primarily responsible for detecting variations in light intensity, essentially allowing us to perceive shades of gray (black and white)
Dichromatism
a condition where a person only has two functioning types of cone cells in their eyes, leading to difficulty distinguishing certain colors, essentially experiencing color vision with only two primary colors, as opposed to the normal trichromatic vision with three primary colors; it is a form of color blindness. Red/Green deficiency is most common and most common in men.
Monochromatism
The Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory explains how humans perceive color. This theory states that the retina contains three types of cones that are sensitive to different wavelengths of light: red, green, and blue. When combined, these signals allow us to see a wide range of colors.
People who are colorblind may lack one or two of these color receptors. If they lack two receptors, their vision may be monochromatic, or one color. If they lack one receptor, their vision may be dichromatic, or two colors.
Prosopagnosia
a neurological condition where a person is unable to recognize familiar faces, despite having normal vision, essentially meaning they suffer from “face blindness” due to a disruption in the brain’s facial recognition abilities
Blindsight
a neurological condition where a person can respond to visual stimuli without consciously perceiving them, typically due to damage to the primary visual cortex in the brain, meaning they can react to visual information even though they claim they cannot see it
Sound- wavelength
the distance between successive peaks or crests of a sound wave, essentially measuring the length of a single cycle of the wave; it directly impacts the perceived pitch of a sound, with longer wavelengths corresponding to lower pitches and shorter wavelengths to higher pitches.
Sound- amplitude
the height or intensity of a sound wave, which directly correlates to how loud a sound is perceived; essentially, a larger amplitude means a louder sound.
Place Theory
a theory of hearing that states our perception of pitch is determined by the specific location along the basilar membrane of the cochlea where sound waves stimulate hair cells
Volley Theory
the idea that groups of neurons in the auditory system can fire in rapid succession, slightly out of phase with each other, to collectively encode and transmit higher frequencies of sound to the brain, effectively allowing us to hear pitches beyond the firing rate of a single neuron; essentially, multiple neurons “volley” together to process high-pitched sounds.
Frequency Theory
the idea that the pitch of a sound is perceived based on the rate at which hair cells in the cochlea fire, meaning that the frequency of the sound wave directly corresponds to the frequency of neural impulses sent to the brain; essentially, the faster the neurons fire, the higher the perceived pitch.
Sound Localization
the ability of an individual to identify the direction or origin of a sound source, primarily achieved by the brain processing differences in the timing and intensity of sound waves reaching each ear, allowing us to perceive where a sound is coming from in space.
Pheromones
a chemical substance secreted by an animal that triggers a specific behavioral response in other members of the same species, essentially acting as a form of chemical communication used to influence behaviors like mating, territoriality, or alarm signals; detected primarily through smell.
Olfactory System
the sensory system responsible for the sense of smell, including the olfactory receptors in the nose, the olfactory bulb in the brain, and the neural pathways that process and interpret smells; essentially, it’s the system that allows us to perceive odors.
Taste receptors
specialized sensory cells located within taste buds on the tongue
“Tasters”
“supertasters” are individuals with an extremely heightened sense of taste, particularly bitterness, due to a higher density of taste buds, while “medium tasters” have an average taste perception, and “non-tasters” have significantly reduced ability to taste, often perceiving little to no bitterness, signifying a lower density of taste buds on their tongues; all three categories are based on genetic variations in taste receptors.
Chemical Senses
the senses of taste (gustation) and smell (olfaction), which detect chemical molecules in the environment, allowing us to perceive flavors and odors
Touch (sense)
the sense that allows us to perceive pressure, temperature, and texture applied to our skin through specialized receptors
Pain (sense)
a complex sensory and emotional experience usually associated with tissue damage, acting as a protective mechanism to alert the body to potential harm or injury
Phantom Limb Sensation
the perception of feeling sensations in a limb that has been amputated, essentially experiencing the feeling of a body part that is no longer physically present, often due to the brain’s continued processing of neural signals from the missing limb area
Semicircular canals
three fluid-filled, looped tubes located within the inner ear that are primarily responsible for detecting head movements and providing the sense of balance
