Unit 2- Cognition Flashcards
Schema
a cognitive framework or mental structure that helps individuals organize and interpret information based on past experiences
Size Constancy
We perceive objects as having a constant size, even when our distance from them varies
Shape Constancy
We perceive the form of familiar objects as a constant even while our retinal image of it changes
Closure
We fill in gaps to create a complete, whole object. Thus we assume that the circles are complete but partially blocked by the triangle. Add nothing more than little line segments that close off the circles and now your brain stops constructing a triangle.
Constancy
Unchanging and constant in perception, shape, or size.
Cocktail Party Phenomenon
Your ability to attend to only one voice among many. An example of selective attention.
Perception
The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events.
Retinal Disparity
Retinal disparity is defined as the way that your left eye and your right eye view slightly different images. Retinal disparity is important in gauging how far away objects are. The more difference (or greater disparity) between the image each eye has of the same object, the closer it is to you.
Convergence
The muscles of the eyes send signals to the brain as they move, the more they converge (turn inward toward each other), the closer an object must be.
Figure-ground
The organization of our visual field into objects (figure) and their surroundings (ground).
Proximity
When we group nearby figures together
Linear perspective
The eyes sense of depth and distance perception
Relative size
A perceptual clue that allows you to determine how close objects are to an object of known size.
Brightness Constancy
We perceive an object as having a constant lightness even while its surrounding lighting.
Top-down processing
refers to how our brains make use of information that has already been brought into the brain by one or more of the sensory systems.
Interposition
If one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer. (Depth Cue)
Texture Gradient
The distortion in size which closer objects have compared to objects farther away.
Bottom-up processing
Analysis of sensory information that begins with our sensory receptors (details) and works its way up to the brain’s integration of the sensory information
Similarity
Grouping principle that says we group similar objects together
Monocular cues
Depth cues like interposition and linear perspective that can be detected by either eye (or both).
Binocular cues
Depth cues like retinal disparity that require the use of both eyes
Perceptual set
a mental predisposition or readiness to perceive stimuli in a particular way based on past experiences, expectations, beliefs, and context
Inattentional Blindness
the phenomenon where someone fails to notice something directly in their visual field because their attention is focused on something else, essentially “missing” something obvious due to their concentration being elsewhere
Gestalt Psychology
a school of thought that emphasizes how the brain perceives the “whole” of a stimulus as more important than its individual parts
Change Blindness
the phenomenon where a person fails to notice a significant change in their visual environment, usually because their attention is momentarily diverted or interrupted, causing them to miss the alteration even if it’s obvious
Relative Clarity
the perceptual cue where objects that appear sharp and clear are perceived as closer than objects that appear hazy or blurry, which are seen as farther away
Apparent Movement
the perception of motion created by rapidly displaying a series of still images, essentially an optical illusion where a stationary object appears to be moving, like the classic example of a flickering light string seeming to move across the line; also known as the “phi phenomenon.”
Serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list.
Structural encoding
The encoding of pictures and images
Phonemic encoding
the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words.
Mnemonic Devices
memory aids, especially those tech- niques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.
Semantic encoding
the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words.
Memory
the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.
Sensory Memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory in- formation in the memory system.
Iconic Memory
momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.
Echoic Memory
momentary sensory memory of auditory stim- uli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.
Selective Attention
the focusing of conscious awareness on a par- ticular stimulus.
Repression
In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from concours es anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings and memories
Misinformation Effect
Incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event
Mood-congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood.
State-dependent memory
When it is more easily recalled when you are in the same state as you were when it happened
Anterograde amnesia
The loss of the ability to create new memories after the event that caused the amnesia, leading to a partial or complete inability to recall the recent past, while long-term memories from before the event remain intact.
Retrograde amnesia
the loss of memory-access to events that occurred, or information that was learned, before an injury or the onset of a disease.
Long-term potentiation
an increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.
Testing effect
Helps to rehearse the material and figure out what you do not know
Recognition
a measure of memory in which the person need only iden- tify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.
Recall
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve in- formation learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.
Source Amnesia
Attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined.
Prototype
A mental image or best example of a category.
Algorithm
A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.
Heuristic
A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently.
Working (Short-term) memory
a cognitive system that temporarily holds and actively manipulates a limited amount of information, allowing individuals to perform complex tasks like reasoning, problem-solving, and comprehension, essentially acting as a “mental workspace” where information is actively processed before being stored or discarded
Chunking
Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
Long-term memory
The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences
Episodic memory
Involves remembering episodes and memories that have happened in your life
Semantic memory
The general world knowledge that we have accumulated over life
Mental Set
A tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.
Functional Fixedness
The tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving.
Representativeness Heuristic
Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent or match particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information.
Availability Heuristic
Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind, we presume such events are common.
Encoding
The processing of information into the memory system- for example, extracting meaning.
Storage
The retention of encoded information over time.
Automatic processing
Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well learned information, such as word meaning.
Effortful processing
Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.
Tip of the tongue phenomenon
I’m having a retrieval error, I know this definition but I can’t quite think of it.
Procedural memory
part of the long-term memory that is responsible for knowing how to do things, also known as motor skills. Procedural memory stores information on how to perform certain procedures, such as walking, talking and riding a bike
Implicit memory
Retention independent of conscious recollection
Explicit memory
Memory of facts and experiences that we can consciously know and “declare”
Retrieval
Later getting information back out of our brain
Retroactive Interference
A phenomenon that occurs when newly learned information interferes with and impedes the recall of previously learned information
Proactive Interference
(Forward acting) when previous information learned disrupts your recall of something you experience later
Prospective Memory
a form of memory that involves remembering to perform a planned action or intention at some future point in time.
Divergent Thinking
a thought process or method used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions.
Convergent Thinking
the ability to give the “correct” answer to standard questions that do not require significant creativity, for instance in most tasks in school and on standardized multiple-choice tests for intelligence
Intelligence
The overall capacity of an individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with the environment.
Standardization
Defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group
Reliability
A property expressed by a test that yields the same result over time.
Test-Retest Reliability
A method for determining the reliability of a test by comparing a test takers scores on the same test taken on separate occasions.
Split-half reliability
A test is divided into two halves and the scores on the halves are compared to see if the test is consistent within itself Example: comparing odds and evens
Validity
A property exhibited by a test that measures or predicts what it is supposed to.
Construct Validity
the degree to which a psychological test or measurement accurately reflects the theoretical concept (or “construct”) it is intended to measure, essentially determining whether the test is truly capturing the intended trait or characteristic it is designed to assess
Mental age
A measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance.
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
Defined originally as the ratio of mental age to chronological age multiplied by 100.
Stanford-Binet intelligence test
The widely used American revision of Binet’s original intelligence test. (Revised by Louis Terman at Stanford university)
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
Most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (non-verbal) sub tests.
Achievement Tests
Tests designed to assess what a person has learned. Like school tests, drivers test, and course exams, etc.
Aptitude Tests
Tests designed to predict a person’s future performances; aptitude is the capacity to learn. Like a college entrance exam, which looks to predict your ability to do work in college
Stereotype threat
Self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype. An example would be a black person would do worse on an intelligence test when taking it with all white people, than if they were to do it with other black people
Schemas
a mental framework or cognitive structure that helps individuals organize and interpret information based on past experiences, essentially acting as a mental shortcut to understand new situations by drawing on existing knowledge and patterns of thinking
Assimilation
the cognitive process where new information is incorporated into existing mental frameworks or schemas, essentially making sense of new experiences by relating them to what you already know
Accommodation
the cognitive process where an individual modifies their existing mental frameworks or schemas to incorporate new information that doesn’t fit their current understanding, essentially changing their existing knowledge to adapt to new experiences
Priming
the phenomenon where exposure to one stimulus (the “prime”) unconsciously influences how a person perceives or responds to a subsequent stimulus, without conscious awareness of the connection between the two
Framing
the way information is presented or “framed,” which can significantly influence how people perceive and react to it, often leading them to make different decisions based on how the options are presented, even if the underlying outcomes are the same
Gambler’s Fallacy
the mistaken belief that the outcome of a random event, like a coin toss or roulette spin, is influenced by previous outcomes
Sunk-Cost Fallacy
the cognitive bias where someone continues to invest time, money, or effort into a situation even when it is no longer beneficial, simply because they have already invested significantly in it
Executive Functions
a set of cognitive processes that allow individuals to plan, organize, and execute tasks, manage their attention, inhibit impulsive behaviors, and flexibly adapt to changing situations
Creativity
the ability to generate novel and useful ideas or solutions
Central Executive
a key component of the working memory model, acting as a control system that manages and directs attention, coordinating the flow of information between other working memory components like the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad, essentially acting as the “boss” of cognitive processes within working memory
Phonological Loop
a component of working memory responsible for temporarily storing and manipulating auditory information, like spoken words or sounds, essentially acting as a mental “inner ear” that allows for the repetition and rehearsal of verbal information to keep it active in the mind
Visuospatial Sketchpad
a component of working memory that temporarily stores and manipulates visual and spatial information, allowing us to visualize scenes, navigate spaces, and mentally represent the appearance and location of objects
Method of Loci
a mnemonic technique where a person visualizes familiar locations to associate and store information
Hierarchies
a system of organizing information into ranked levels, where broader concepts are divided into progressively narrower and more specific subcategories
Spacing Effect
the phenomenon where information is better retained when studied over a period of time with intervals between sessions, rather than cramming all at once
Massed Practice
a learning strategy where a person studies or practices information in a concentrated block of time with minimal breaks, essentially “cramming,”
Distributed Practice
a learning strategy where studying is spread out over multiple sessions over a longer period of time, rather than cramming all the information in a single session, allowing for better long-term retention of information due to the “spacing effect.”
Primacy Effect
the tendency for people to better remember information presented at the beginning of a list or series, compared to information presented later on
Recency Effect
the tendency for people to remember information presented at the end of a list or sequence better than information presented earlier
Maintenance Rehearsal
the process of repeatedly saying or thinking about a piece of information to keep it active in your short-term memory for a brief period
Elaborative Rehearsal
a memory strategy where new information is actively connected and related to existing knowledge in long-term memory, creating deeper processing and better retention by forming meaningful associations, rather than simply repeating the information superficially; essentially, it means “thinking deeply” about new information
Autobiographical Memory
a person’s recollection of personal experiences and events from their life, essentially their personal history
Alzheimer’s Disease
a progressive brain disorder that gradually deteriorates an individual’s memory, cognitive abilities, and personality, leading to significant impairment in daily functioning, with symptoms like difficulty learning new information in early stages and severe decline in thinking, speaking, and performing basic tasks in later stages
Infantile Amnesia
the inability of adults to recall personal memories from their early childhood, typically before the age of 3 or 4, due to the underdevelopment of the brain’s memory systems
Retrieval Cues
stimuli or pieces of information that help a person access and recall a stored memory, essentially acting as triggers to retrieve information from long-term memory
Context-Dependent Memory
the phenomenon where information is best recalled when the environment or context in which it was originally learned is the same as the environment in which it is being retrieved, meaning you are more likely to remember something if you are in the same place where you first learned it
Metacognition
the awareness and understanding of one’s own thought processes, essentially “thinking about thinking,” which involves actively monitoring, planning, and evaluating one’s cognitive strategies to improve learning and problem-solving abilities
Forgetting Curve
a graphical representation illustrating how quickly information is lost over time if not actively rehearsed or used, showing a rapid initial decline in memory retention followed by a slower gradual decrease
Encoding Failure
a situation where information is not effectively transferred from working memory to long-term storage
Inadequate Retrieval
the inability to access information stored in long-term memory, even though the information is still technically there, often due to a lack of proper retrieval cues or interference from other memories
Psychodynamic
a psychological perspective that emphasizes the influence of unconscious thoughts, desires, and early childhood experiences on current behavior
Ego
the decision-making part of the mind that balances desires with reality
Constructive Memory
the idea that when we recall a memory, our brain actively reconstructs the event based on our existing knowledge, beliefs, and perceptions, potentially leading to distortions or inaccuracies in the retrieved memory
Memory Consolidation
the process by which the brain transforms short-term memories into more stable, long-term memories
Imagination Inflation
the phenomenon where repeatedly imagining an event increases a person’s confidence that it actually happened, leading to a false memory of the event occurring, even if it never did
General Intelligence (g)
the idea that an individual’s overall intelligence is a compilation of different specific abilities. It suggests that if someone is good at one type of cognitive task, they’re likely to be good at others too.
Chronological Age
a person’s age based solely on the number of years that have passed since their birth date, essentially just how old they are according to the calendar
Intelligence Tests
a method of assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores.
Psychometric
the field of study within psychology that focuses on the development and application of psychological tests to measure mental abilities, personality traits, attitudes, and other cognitive functions
Predictive Validity
the extent to which a psychological test or assessment accurately predicts future behavior or performance on a related criterion measure
Stereotype Lift
the phenomenon where individuals from a group not negatively stereotyped experience an improvement in performance when compared to a group that is negatively stereotyped
Flynn Effect
the observed rise over time in standardized intelligence test scores
Poverty Discrimination
the act of unfairly treating someone negatively based on their perceived low socioeconomic status, essentially discriminating against them due to their poverty, often leading to unequal access to opportunities like education, employment, and housing
Fixed Mindset
the belief that a person’s abilities and intelligence are innate and cannot be significantly changed through effort
Growth Mindset
the belief that a person’s intelligence and abilities can be developed and improved through effort, practice, and learning, rather than being fixed traits
