Unit 4 - Social Psych & Persona Flashcards
1
Q
Terms
A
Definition/Explanation
2
Q
Abraham Maslow
A
an American psychologist known for his humanistic theory of personality and the hierarchy of needs, which suggests that individuals strive for self-actualization and personal growth once their basic needs are met.
3
Q
achievement motivation
A
the desire to excel, succeed, or accomplish challenging goals, often driven by the pursuit of competence, mastery, or recognition in specific domains or tasks.
4
Q
actor-observer bias
A
the tendency to attribute one’s own behavior to external factors while attributing others’ behavior to internal factors, particularly in situations where one is the actor (participant) versus the observer.
5
Q
affiliation need
A
a fundamental human motivation to seek social connections, relationships, and belongingness with others, driven by the desire for companionship, support, and interpersonal bonds.
6
Q
aggression
A
behavior that is intended to cause harm or injury to another individual, either physically or psychologically.
7
Q
Agreeableness
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A personality trait that reflects a person’s tendency to be compassionate and cooperative.
8
Q
Albert Bandura
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a psychologist known for his social-cognitive theory of personality, self-efficacy theory, and research on observational learning (modeling), which emphasizes the role of cognitive processes, social learning, and self-regulation in behavior.
9
Q
Alfred Adler
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an Austrian psychiatrist and founder of individual psychology, known for his theories on the importance of social dynamics, striving for superiority, and the influence of early childhood experiences on personality development.
10
Q
altruism
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selfless behavior or actions that are motivated by concern for the well-being or welfare of others, without expecting any personal benefit or reward in return.
11
Q
Approach-Approach Conflict
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A type of conflict that occurs when a person must choose between two desirable outcomes.
12
Q
Approach-Avoidance Conflict
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A conflict involving a single goal or event that has both positive and negative aspects.
13
Q
Arousal Theory
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A theory of motivation suggesting that people are driven to perform actions in order to maintain an optimal level of physiological arousal.
14
Q
attitudes
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evaluations, feelings, or beliefs about people, objects, or ideas that influence behavior and responses to the social world
15
Q
Attribution
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The process by which individuals explain the causes of behavior and events.
16
Q
attribution theory
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a psychological framework that explores how individuals explain the causes of events, behaviors, and outcomes, either attributing them to internal factors (such as personality traits) or external factors (such as situational circumstances).
17
Q
Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict
A
A conflict that occurs when a person must choose between two unattractive outcomes.
18
Q
basal metabolic rate
A
the minimum amount of energy or calories required by the body to maintain basic physiological functions (such as respiration, circulation, and cell metabolism) while at rest and in a fasting state.
19
Q
behavior feedback effect
A
the phenomenon whereby changes in behavior can influence emotional experience and physiological arousal, suggesting that actions and movements can affect mood and subjective feelings.
20
Q
behavioral approach
A
a psychological perspective that focuses on observable behaviors, environmental influences, and learning principles (such as classical and operant conditioning) in explaining personality and behavior.
21
Q
Belief Perseverance
A
The tendency to cling to one’s initial beliefs even after receiving new information that contradicts or disconfirms the basis of those beliefs.
22
Q
Bibb Latane
A
a social psychologist known for his research on social loafing, bystander effect, and diffusion of responsibility, particularly his experiments on helping behavior in emergency situations.
23
Q
Big Five Factors
A
theory that contains five broad dimensions of personality traits openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism, which capture the major dimensions of individual differences in personality.
24
Q
Broaden & Build Theory
A
A theory that suggests positive emotions broaden one’s awareness and encourage novel, varied, and exploratory thoughts and actions.
25
Burnout
A state of emotional, physical, and mental exhaustion caused by excessive and prolonged stress.
26
bystander effect
a social phenomenon in which individuals are less likely to offer help or intervene in an emergency situation when others are present, often due to diffusion of responsibility and social influence.
27
Carl Jung
a Swiss psychiatrist and founder of analytical psychology, known for his theories on the collective unconscious, archetypes, and the process of individuation.
28
Carl Rogers
an American psychologist and founder of client-centered therapy, known for his humanistic theory of personality, emphasis on unconditional positive regard, and the importance of self-concept and self-actualization in personal growth.
29
central route persuasion
a method of persuasion that involves careful consideration and evaluation of the arguments, evidence, and logic presented in a persuasive message.
30
cognitive dissonance theory
proposed by Leon Festinger, suggests that individuals experience psychological discomfort when their attitudes or beliefs are inconsistent with their behavior, leading them to seek consistency and reduce dissonance through attitude change or rationalization.
31
collective unconscious
a concept in analytical psychology proposed by Carl Jung, referring to a shared reservoir of unconscious memories, symbols, and experiences that are common to all humans and inherited across generations.
32
collectivism
a cultural orientation that prioritizes the interests, values, and goals of the group or community over those of the individual, emphasizing cooperation, interdependence, and social harmony.
33
companionate love
a deep and enduring emotional bond characterized by intimacy, trust, affection, and commitment, often found in long-term relationships or marriages.
34
Confirmation Bias
The tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms one's preexisting beliefs.
35
conflict
a perceived incompatibility of goals, interests, or values between individuals or groups, leading to disagreement, tension, or competition.
36
conformity
the tendency to adjust one's attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors to match those of a majority group or social norms, often in response to real or perceived pressure to fit in or be accepted.
37
Conscientiousness
A personality trait characterized by organization, dependability, and discipline.
38
culture
the shared beliefs, values, norms, customs, traditions, and practices that characterize a particular group, community, or society, influencing behavior, attitudes, and social interactions.
39
defense mechanisms
unconscious strategies or tactics used by the ego to protect against anxiety, threats, or conflicts, by distorting reality, repressing impulses, or redirecting emotions.
40
deindividuation
the loss of self-awareness and individuality that occurs when individuals are part of a group or crowd, leading to reduced inhibitions, increased conformity, and impulsive behavior.
41
Denial
Refusing to accept reality or facts.
42
discrimination
the unjust or prejudicial treatment of individuals or groups based on their membership in a particular social category, often resulting in differential access to resources, opportunities, or rights.
43
Disinhibition
A lack of restraint manifested in disregard for social conventions, impulsivity, and poor risk assessment.
44
Displacement
Redirecting emotional impulses from a threatening target to a safer one.
45
Display Rules
Cultural norms that dictate the appropriate expressions of emotions.
46
Dispositional Attribution
Attributing behavior to internal characteristics or traits of the individual.
47
drive-reduction theory
a motivational theory proposing that biological drives, such as hunger or thirst, create a state of tension or arousal (drive) that motivates organisms to engage in behaviors that reduce or satisfy those drives and restore homeostasis.
48
ego
the rational and decision-making component of personality that operates on the reality principle, mediating between the demands of the id, superego, and external reality, while managing internal conflicts and desires.
49
emotion
a complex psychological and physiological state characterized by subjective feelings, physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and cognitive appraisal, often in response to external stimuli or internal thoughts.
50
empirically derived test
a psychological assessment tool developed through systematic research and statistical analysis of large datasets, ensuring reliability and validity based on empirical evidence.
51
equity
a sense of fairness, balance, and mutual give-and-take in the distribution of rewards, benefits, and responsibilities between partners.
52
Ethnocentrism
Belief in the superiority of one's own ethnic group.
53
Explanatory Style
A psychological attribute that indicates how people explain to themselves why they experience a particular event.
54
Explicit Attitudes
Attitudes that are consciously held and can be easily reported.
55
External Locus of Control
The belief that external factors, such as luck or other people, control one's fate.
56
Extraversion
A personality trait characterized by sociability, talkativeness, and assertiveness.
57
extrinsic motivation
the desire to engage in an activity or behavior in order to obtain external rewards, incentives, or avoid punishment, rather than for the inherent satisfaction or enjoyment of the activity itself.
58
facial feedback effect
the phenomenon whereby facial expressions can influence emotional experience and physiological arousal, suggesting that changes in facial muscles can affect mood and subjective feelings.
59
False Consensus Effect
The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors.
60
foot-in-the-door phenomenon
a persuasion technique in which compliance with a small request is followed by compliance with a larger request, based on the principle of consistency and the desire to maintain a positive self-image.
61
free association
a psychoanalytic technique in which individuals are encouraged to express themselves freely and spontaneously, revealing unconscious thoughts, emotions, and memories without censorship or judgment.
62
frustration-aggression principle
suggests that frustration, resulting from the blocking of goals or desires, often leads to aggressive behavior or responses.
63
fundamental attribution error
the tendency to overestimate the influence of internal factors and underestimate the influence of external factors when explaining the behavior of others, especially in negative or ambiguous situations.
64
Ghrelin
A hormone produced in the stomach that stimulates appetite.
65
glucose
a simple sugar and the primary source of energy for cells in the body, obtained from the digestion of carbohydrates in food and transported through the bloodstream to fuel cellular metabolism.
66
grit
the perseverance, passion, and resilience demonstrated by individuals in the pursuit of long-term goals or objectives, despite facing obstacles, setbacks, or failures.
67
group polarization
the tendency for group discussion or interaction to intensify and reinforce the initial attitudes, opinions, or inclinations of group members, leading to more extreme decisions or positions.
68
groupthink
a phenomenon in which group members prioritize harmony and consensus over critical evaluation of alternatives or dissenting opinions, leading to flawed decision-making and the suppression of dissent.
69
Halo Effect
The tendency for an impression created in one area to influence opinion in another area.
70
hierarchy of needs
a theory proposed by Abraham Maslow, suggesting that human motivation is organized into a hierarchical structure of needs, ranging from basic physiological needs to higher-order psychological needs such as self-esteem and self-actualization.
71
homeostasis
the body's tendency to maintain a stable, balanced internal environment despite changes in external conditions, through physiological mechanisms that regulate various bodily processes and functions.
72
humanistic theories
psychological theories that emphasize the inherent goodness, self-actualizing tendency, and potential for growth and fulfillment in individuals, focusing on subjective experiences, personal values, and self-determination.
73
id
the primitive and instinctual component of personality that operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification of basic needs and desires, regardless of social norms or consequences.
74
Implicit Attitudes
Attitudes that are automatic, unconscious, and difficult to control.
75
In-Group Bias
The tendency to favor one's own group over other groups.
76
incentive
a stimulus or reward that motivates or encourages behavior, often by offering the possibility of obtaining positive outcomes or avoiding negative consequences.
77
individualism
a cultural orientation that prioritizes the rights, needs, and goals of the individual over those of the group, emphasizing independence, autonomy, and personal achievement.
78
Industrial-Organizational Psychology
The application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces.
79
informational social influence
when individuals conform to the beliefs or behaviors of others because they believe others possess accurate knowledge or information, leading to acceptance of the group's judgments or decisions.
80
ingroup
a social group with which an individual identifies and feels a sense of belonging, typically characterized by shared values, norms, and identities.
81
ingroup bias
the tendency to favor and show positive attitudes toward members of one's own ingroup while displaying negative attitudes toward members of outgroups.
82
instinct
an innate, fixed pattern of behavior that is characteristic of a species and is often triggered by specific stimuli, serving important adaptive functions such as survival and reproduction.
83
Internal Locus of Control
The belief that one controls one's own fate or outcomes.
84
intrinsic motivation
the desire to engage in an activity or behavior for its own sake, deriving satisfaction, enjoyment, or fulfillment from the activity itself rather than external rewards or incentives.
85
John Darley
a social psychologist known for his research on bystander intervention, diffusion of responsibility, and the factors influencing helping behavior in emergency situations.
86
Joseph LeDoux
an American neuroscientist known for his research on the neural mechanisms of emotion, particularly the role of the amygdala in fear and emotional processing.
87
just-world phenomenon
the tendency to believe that the world is inherently fair and that people get what they deserve, leading to victim-blaming and rationalization of inequalities and injustices.
88
Karen Horney
a German psychoanalyst and pioneer of feminist psychology, known for her theories on neurosis, the impact of social and cultural factors on personality, and the concept of basic anxiety.
89
Leon Festinger
a social psychologist known for his theory of cognitive dissonance and his research on social comparison processes, group dynamics, and the psychology of cults.
90
Leptin
A hormone produced by adipose (fat) cells that helps to regulate energy balance by inhibiting hunger.
91
loose culture
societies with weaker social norms, more permissive attitudes, and greater tolerance for diversity and deviance, resulting in less conformity and social control.
92
Lowball Technique
A persuasion and selling technique in which an item or service is offered at a lower price than is actually intended to be charged, after which the price is raised to increase profits.
93
mere expsoure effect
the phenomenon whereby repeated exposure to a stimulus, such as a person, object, or idea, increases liking or preference for that stimulus over time, even in the absence of conscious awareness.
94
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
a widely used psychological assessment tool for measuring personality and psychopathology, consisting of a series of true/false statements that assess various personality traits, psychological symptoms, and disorders.
95
mirror-image perceptions
the reciprocal views or stereotypes that conflicting parties hold about each other, in which each side sees the other as aggressive, hostile, or unreasonable, while viewing themselves as peaceful, reasonable, and justified.
96
motivation
the processes that initiate, guide, and sustain goal-directed behavior, including the internal and external factors that energize and direct behavior towards achieving specific goals or outcomes.
97
Multiculturalism
A perspective that recognizes the cultural diversity of a country and promotes equal standing for all cultural traditions.
98
narcissism
a personality trait characterized by excessive self-admiration, grandiosity, entitlement, and a lack of empathy for others, often accompanied by a need for admiration and validation from others.
99
Neuroticism
A personality trait characterized by emotional instability, anxiety, and moodiness.
100
normative social influence
when individuals conform to group norms or expectations in order to gain social approval, acceptance, or avoid rejection or disapproval.
101
norms
shared rules, expectations, and standards of behavior that guide interactions and social conduct within groups or societies.
102
obedience
the compliance with direct commands or instructions from an authority figure or social group, often in the absence of personal responsibility or accountability for the consequences of one's actions.
103
obesity
a medical condition characterized by excessive accumulation of body fat to the extent that it may have adverse effects on health, well-being, and quality of life, often defined by a body mass index (BMI) of 30 or higher.
104
Openness
A personality trait that reflects a person's openness to experience, creativity, and willingness to try new things.
105
ostracism
the act of excluding or ignoring individuals from social interactions, relationships, or group activities, often resulting in feelings of rejection, loneliness, and social pain.
106
other race effect
the tendency to better recognize and distinguish faces of individuals from one's own racial or ethnic group compared to those of other racial or ethnic groups.
107
Out-Group Homogeneity
The tendency to view an out-group as homogenous, or all the same, while seeing members of the in-group as more varied.
108
outgroup
a social group with which an individual does not identify and may perceive as different or inferior, often leading to stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination.
109
passionate love
an intense emotional state characterized by strong feelings of attraction, longing, and desire for intimacy and physical closeness, often experienced early in a romantic relationship.
110
Paul Costa
a psychologist known for his collaboration with Robert McCrae in developing the Five Factor Model (Big Five) of personality and for his research on personality development and aging.
111
Paul Ekman
an American psychologist known for his research on facial expressions, emotion, and nonverbal communication, as well as his contributions to the study of universal emotions and the Facial Action Coding System (FACS).
112
peripheral route persuasion
a method of persuasion that relies on superficial factors such as attractiveness, credibility, or emotional appeals rather than the quality of the message itself.
113
person perception
the process of forming impressions, judgments, and evaluations of other people based on their behavior, appearance, and other observable characteristics.
114
personality
an individual's unique pattern of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that persist over time and across different situations, shaping their identity, interactions, and experiences.
115
personality inventory
a self-report questionnaire or assessment tool used to measure and assess various personality traits, characteristics, or dimensions, often based on empirical research and psychometric principles.
116
personality psychology
the branch of psychology that focuses on understanding individual differences in behavior, thoughts, and emotions, as well as the underlying psychological processes that contribute to the development and expression of personality traits.
117
persuasion
the process of intentionally influencing attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors of others through communication, argumentation, or manipulation of information.
118
physiological need
basic biological requirements for survival and functioning, such as food, water, shelter, and sleep, which must be satisfied to maintain homeostasis and well-being.
119
polygraph
commonly known as a lie detector, a device used to measure physiological responses (such as heart rate, blood pressure, and skin conductivity) that are believed to be associated with deception or emotional arousal, often used in forensic and security settings.
120
Preconscious
The area of the mind that contains information that can be brought into consciousness when needed.
121
prejudice
a negative attitude or belief held about individuals or groups based on their membership in a particular social category, such as race, ethnicity, gender, or religion.
122
Projection
Attributing one's own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to others.
123
projective test
a psychological assessment tool used to reveal unconscious thoughts, feelings, and conflicts by presenting individuals with ambiguous stimuli and interpreting their responses, which are thought to reflect underlying personality dynamics.
124
psychdynamic theories
psychological theories that emphasize the role of unconscious processes, inner conflicts, and early childhood experiences in shaping personality and behavior, particularly within the framework of Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory.
125
psychoanalysis
a therapeutic approach developed by Sigmund Freud that aims to explore and resolve unconscious conflicts, desires, and motivations through techniques such as free association, dream analysis, and interpretation of unconscious thoughts and feelings.
126
Rationalization
Creating a seemingly logical reason or excuse for behavior that might otherwise be shameful.
127
Reaction Formation
Behaving in a way that is opposite to one's unacceptable impulses.
128
reciprocal determinism
a key concept in social-cognitive theory proposed by Albert Bandura, suggesting that behavior, personal factors (such as cognition, beliefs), and environmental influences (such as social context, reinforcement) interact and influence each other bidirectionally over time.
129
reciprocity norm
a social norm that suggests individuals should reciprocate kind or helpful actions of others, fostering mutual cooperation and social exchange.
130
Regression
Reverting to an earlier stage of development in the face of stress.
131
Relative Deprivation
The perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself.
132
repression
a defense mechanism that involves pushing threatening or anxiety-provoking thoughts, feelings, or memories into the unconscious mind, preventing conscious awareness and reducing distress.
133
Richard Lazarus
an American psychologist known for his research on stress, coping, and emotion, particularly the cognitive-mediational theory of emotion, which emphasizes the role of cognitive appraisal in emotional experience.
134
Robert McCrae
a psychologist known for his research on personality and the development of the Five Factor Model (Big Five) of personality, which includes five broad dimensions of personality traits - openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.
135
Robert Zajonc
a Polish-American psychologist known for his research on social psychology, social facilitation, and the mere exposure effect, which suggests that repeated exposure to stimuli increases liking and preference for those stimuli.
136
role
a set of expected behaviors, duties, and responsibilities associated with a particular position, status, or social identity within a group or society.
137
Rorschach inkblot test
a projective psychological test consisting of symmetrical inkblots that individuals are asked to interpret, revealing unconscious thoughts, feelings, and perceptions based on their responses.
138
scapegoat theory
suggests that individuals or groups who are frustrated or facing negative circumstances may redirect their aggression toward a target that is perceived as weaker or different, serving as a scapegoat for their frustrations.
139
self
a multidimensional construct that encompasses an individual's beliefs, attitudes, values, identity, and self-awareness, representing their subjective experience of themselves as separate and distinct from others.
140
self-actualization
the highest level of psychological development and fulfillment according to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, characterized by the realization of one's potential, pursuit of personal growth, and fulfillment of intrinsic values and aspirations.
141
self-concept
an individual's perception, beliefs, and evaluations about themselves, including their identity, self-worth, abilities, and roles, which shapes their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
142
self-determination theory
a motivational theory emphasizing the importance of autonomy, competence, and relatedness in fostering intrinsic motivation, personal growth, and well-being.
143
self-disclosure
the voluntary sharing of personal information, thoughts, feelings, or experiences with another person, which fosters intimacy and trust in interpersonal relationships.
144
self-efficacy
the belief in one's own ability to successfully accomplish tasks, achieve goals, or overcome challenges, based on past experiences, skills, and perceived capabilities.
145
self-esteem
an individual's overall evaluation of their own worth, value, and competence, encompassing feelings of self-respect, self-acceptance, and self-confidence.
146
self-fullfilling prophecy
a belief or expectation that influences behavior in a way that makes the belief or expectation come true, often due to confirmation bias or changes in behavior that align with the belief.
147
self-serving bias
a cognitive bias that involves attributing successes to internal factors (such as ability or effort) while attributing failures to external factors (such as luck or situational factors), in order to protect one's self-esteem and maintain a positive self-image.
148
self-transcendence
a concept proposed by Abraham Maslow, referring to the capacity to transcend personal concerns, ego boundaries, and individual identity in pursuit of higher meaning, connection, and spiritual experiences.
149
Sensation-Seeking Theory
A theory suggesting that individuals have varying levels of a need for stimulation and excitement.
150
set point
a hypothetical physiological level or range (such as body weight or temperature) that the body tries to maintain within a stable equilibrium through regulatory mechanisms and feedback loops.
151
Sigmund Freud
an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, known for his theories on the structure of the mind (id, ego, superego), stages of psychosexual development, and defense mechanisms.
152
Situational Attribution
Attributing behavior to external factors or circumstances.
153
social exchange theory
proposes that people's social behavior is based on the calculation of rewards and costs, where individuals seek to maximize rewards and minimize costs in their interactions with others.
154
social facilitation
the tendency for the presence of others to enhance performance on simple or well-learned tasks, but hinder performance on complex or novel tasks, due to increased arousal and evaluation apprehension.
155
social identity
the part of an individual's self-concept that is derived from their membership in social groups, such as nationality, ethnicity, gender, or profession, which shapes their sense of identity and belonging.
156
Social Influence
The effect that other people have on an individual's thoughts, feelings, attitudes, or behaviors.
157
Social Inhibition
The tendency to perform worse on tasks when in the presence of others, especially for tasks that are complex or not well practiced.
158
social loafing
the tendency for individuals to exert less effort or motivation when working collectively in a group compared to when working individually, due to diffusion of responsibility and decreased accountability.
159
Social Norms
The accepted behaviors that an individual is expected to conform to in a particular group, community, or culture.
160
social psychology
the branch of psychology that studies how individuals think, feel, and behave in social contexts, including the influence of social interactions, groups, and cultural factors on behavior.
161
social responsibility norm
suggests individuals should help those in need, especially when they are dependent, vulnerable, or unable to help themselves.
162
social script
a set of expected behaviors, actions, and responses that guide interactions in specific social situations, such as greetings, conversations, or dating rituals.
163
social trap
a situation in which individuals or groups pursue immediate rewards or benefits that ultimately lead to negative long-term consequences for themselves or others, often due to a lack of cooperation or consideration of the common good.
164
social-cognitive perspective
a psychological approach that emphasizes the interaction between individual characteristics (such as personality traits, cognition) and environmental influences (such as social contexts, learning experiences) in shaping behavior and personality.
165
Solomon Asch
a social psychologist known for his research on conformity, particularly his experiments on conformity to group pressure and the influence of social norms on individual behavior.
166
spotlight effect
a phenomenon in which individuals tend to overestimate the extent to which others notice and pay attention to their appearance, behavior, or actions, leading to self-consciousness and social anxiety.
167
Stanley Milgram
a social psychologist known for his controversial experiments on obedience to authority, which demonstrated the willingness of individuals to obey authority figures even when it conflicted with their personal conscience.
168
Stanley Schachter
an American psychologist known for his research on emotions, social psychology, and the two-factor theory of emotion, which proposes that emotions involve both physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation.
169
stereotype
a fixed, oversimplified, and often negative belief or judgment about a particular group of people, based on their perceived characteristics or attributes.
170
Sublimation
Redirecting unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable activities.
171
superego
the moral and ethical component of personality that internalizes societal standards, values, and ideals, serving as the conscience and enforcing moral judgments and standards of behavior.
172
superordinate goals
common objectives or shared interests that require cooperation and mutual effort from conflicting parties, often leading to reduced intergroup conflict and improved relations.
173
terror-management theory
a social psychological theory that explores how individuals cope with the existential anxiety and fear of mortality by adhering to cultural worldviews, beliefs, and values that provide meaning, significance, and a sense of immortality.
174
Thematic-Apperception Test
a projective psychological test used to assess personality and unconscious motives by presenting individuals with ambiguous pictures and asking them to create stories or narratives about what is happening in the pictures.
175
tight culture
societies with strong social norms, strict rules, and low tolerance for deviance or nonconformity, leading to greater conformity and social control.
176
trait
a relatively stable and enduring characteristic or pattern of behavior, thought, or emotion that distinguishes one individual from another and influences how they respond to different situations.
177
Trait Theory
A theory of personality that focuses on identifying, describing, and measuring individual differences in behavioral predispositions.
178
unconditional positive regard
an attitude of acceptance, respect, and nonjudgmental regard toward individuals, regardless of their thoughts, feelings, or behaviors, which fosters self-acceptance, authenticity, and personal growth.
179
unconscious
a reservoir of thoughts, feelings, memories, and desires that are not consciously accessible to awareness but may influence behavior, emotions, and perceptions.
180
Walter Cannon
an American physiologist known for his research on homeostasis, stress response, and the fight-or-flight response, as well as coining the term "homeostasis."
181
William James
an American philosopher and psychologist known for his contributions to functionalism, pragmatism, and theories of consciousness, emotion, and the self, including the concept of the "stream of consciousness."
182
Yerkes-Dodson law
a principle in psychology stating that there is an optimal level of arousal or stress that enhances performance on a task, with performance declining at both low and high levels of arousal.
