Unit 3 - Development & Learning Flashcards
accommodation
In the context of Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, the process of modifying existing cognitive schemas (mental structures) or creating new ones to incorporate new information or experiences.
acquisition
the initial stage of learning when a response is first established and gradually strengthened through reinforcement
adolescence
the transitional stage of physical and psychological development that generally occurs during the teenage years, marked by puberty, identity exploration, and increased autonomy.
Adulthood
The stage of life after adolescence, characterized by full development and maturity, typically defined by milestones such as career establishment and family formation.
Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)
Potentially traumatic events that occur in childhood, such as abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction.
aggression
behavior that is intended to cause harm or injury to another person or object
Albert Bandura
a psychologist known for his contributions to social learning theory and the concept of self-efficacy; conducted the famous Bobo doll experiment, which demonstrated observational learning and the influence of role models on behavior.
Alfred Kinsey
a biologist and sexologist known for his pioneering research on human sexuality; provided extensive data on sexual behavior in American men and women.
Alice Eagly
a psychologist known for her research on gender roles and social psychology. She has contributed to the understanding of gender stereotypes and the role of socialization in shaping behavior.
androgyny
the combination of masculine and feminine characteristics or qualities in an individual, challenging traditional gender roles and stereotypes.
Animism
The belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action, common in young children.
antisocial behavior
actions that violate social norms, disregard the rights of others, and often involve aggression, deceit, or rule-breaking.
aphasia
a language disorder caused by damage to the brain, typically resulting in difficulty with language production, comprehension, or both.
asexual
a lack of sexual attraction to others or a lack of interest in sexual activity.
assimilation
the process of incorporating new information or experiences into existing cognitive schemas or mental structures
associative learning
a type of learning that involves forming associations or connections between stimuli and responses, such as classical and operant conditioning
attachment
the emotional bond that forms between an infant and their primary caregiver, typically characterized by proximity seeking, distress upon separation, and a sense of security.
Authoritarian Parenting
A strict parenting style characterized by high demands and low responsiveness; parents expect obedience and use punishment.
Authoritative Parenting
A parenting style characterized by high demands and high responsiveness; parents set clear standards and are supportive.
B. F. Skinner
a psychologist known for his work in behaviorism and operant conditioning; developed the operant chamber, a controlled environment for studying behavior, and introduced concepts such as reinforcement and schedules of reinforcement.
babbling stage
a developmental milestone in infancy when infants produce repetitive, nonsensical sounds as they experiment with vocalizations
basic trust
according to Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory, the sense of security and confidence in the world that develops during infancy through consistent and nurturing caregiving
behaviorism
a psychological approach that emphasizes the study of observable behavior and the role of environmental stimuli in shaping behavior, while often disregarding internal mental processes
Benjamin Lee Whorf
a linguist known for his hypothesis of linguistic relativity, which suggests that the structure of language influences the way individuals perceive and think about the world
Biological Preparedness
The idea that people and animals are inherently inclined to form associations between certain stimuli and responses.
Broca’s area
a region of the brain located in the frontal lobe, responsible for speech production and language processing
Carl Wernicke
a neurologist known for identifying Wernicke’s area, a brain region associated with language comprehension and processing
Carol Gilligan
a psychologist known for her work on gender and moral development. She criticized Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of moral development for its focus on justice and argued for a more relational approach to ethics
Chronosystem
The pattern of environmental events and transitions over the life course, as well as socio-historical circumstances.
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response
cognition
mental processes such as perception, thinking, memory, and problem-solving
cognitive map
a mental representation of one’s spatial environment, including landmarks, routes, and relationships between locations
cognitve learning
earning that involves mental processes such as attention, perception, memory, and problem-solving, as opposed to purely behavioral responses
concrete operational stage
In Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, the third stage, occurring from about 7 to 11 years old, characterized by the ability to think logically about concrete events and grasp concrete analogies.
conditioned reinforcer
a previously neutral stimulus that becomes reinforcing through its association with a primary reinforcer.
conditioned response
a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus, acquired through classical conditioning
conditioned stimulus
a previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus, elicits a conditioned response.
Conditioning
The process of learning associations between environmental events and behavioral responses.
conservation
the understanding that certain properties of objects, such as quantity, volume, or number, remain constant despite changes in their physical appearance.
continuous reinforcement schedule
a reinforcement schedule in which every occurrence of the desired behavior is reinforced
critical period
a developmental stage during which an organism is particularly sensitive to environmental influences and experiences, which are necessary for the normal development of certain abilities or behaviors
cross-sectional study
a research method that compares individuals of different ages or developmental stages at a single point in time to examine age-related differences
Crystallized Intelligence
The ability to use learned knowledge and experience.
Dementia
A group of symptoms affecting memory, thinking, and social abilities severely enough to interfere with daily functioning.
developmental psychology
the branch of psychology that studies the physical, cognitive, and social changes that occur throughout the lifespan, from infancy to old age
Diana Baumrind
a psychologist known for her research on parenting styles. She identified three main parenting styles -authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive.
discrimination
the ability to respond differently to similar but distinct stimuli, or to treat individuals or groups differently based on prejudiced beliefs or attitudes
discriminative stimulus
a cue or signal that indicates the presence of reinforcement for a particular behavior
ecological systems theory
proposed by Urie Bronfenbrenner, this theory emphasizes the influence of various environmental systems (such as family, school, community) on individual development
Edward C. Tolman
a psychologist known for his research on cognitive maps and latent learning, which demonstrated that learning can occur without reinforcement and may not be immediately evident in behavior.
Edward L. Thorndike
a psychologist known for his research on animal learning and the law of effect, which states that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated.
egocentrism
the inability to take another person’s perspective or understand that others may have different thoughts, feelings, or beliefs.
emerging adulthood
a developmental stage proposed by Jeffrey Arnett, characterized by identity exploration, instability, self-focus, and possibilities, typically occurring in the late teens and early twenties.
Erik Erikson
a psychologist known for his theory of psychosocial development, which describes eight stages of development spanning from infancy to old age, each characterized by a unique psychosocial crisis or challenge.
estrogen
a hormone primarily associated with the development of female secondary sexual characteristics and the regulation of the menstrual cycle.
Exosystem
The larger social system in which the individual does not function directly but which affects the person’s microsystem, such as a parent’s workplace.
extinction
the gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus.
fetal alcohol syndrome
a group of physical and mental birth defects that occur in children whose mothers consumed alcohol during pregnancy.
Fixed Schedule
A schedule of reinforcement where rewards are given after a fixed number of responses or a fixed amount of time.
fixed-interval schedule
a reinforcement schedule in which the first response is rewarded only after a specified time interval has elapsed.
fixed-ratio schedule
a reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement is delivered after a fixed number of responses.
Fluid Intelligence
The capacity to think logically and solve problems in novel situations, independent of acquired knowledge.
formal operational stage
In Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, the fourth stage, occurring from about age 12 through adulthood, characterized by the ability to think abstractly, reason logically, and engage in hypothetical thinking.
gender
the socially constructed roles, behaviors, expressions, and identities associated with being male or female, which can vary across different cultures and societies.
gender identity
an individual’s personal sense of their own gender, which may or may not align with the sex assigned to them at birth.
gender role
the set of societal expectations, norms, and behaviors that are typically associated with being male or female in a particular culture or society.
gender typing
the process by which individuals acquire behaviors, preferences, and roles that are typically associated with their gender, often through socialization and reinforcement.
generalization
the tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to a conditioned stimulus, even if they have not been explicitly paired with the unconditioned stimulus.
grammar
the set of rules and principles that govern the structure, composition, and use of language, including syntax, morphology, and semantics.
habituation
a decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated or prolonged exposure, reflecting a form of learning in which the stimulus becomes less novel or salient over time.
Harry Harlow
a psychologist known for his research on attachment and social isolation in rhesus monkeys, particularly his experiments with surrogate mothers made of wire or cloth.
higher-order conditioning
a form of classical conditioning in which a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus, leading the new stimulus to elicit a conditioned response.
identity
the distinct characteristics, beliefs, values, and experiences that define an individual’s sense of self and contribute to their understanding of who they are.
Identity Achievement
The status of individuals who have explored various identities and made a commitment to one.
Identity Diffusion
The status of individuals who have neither explored nor made a commitment to any identity.
Identity Foreclosure
The status of individuals who have made a commitment to an identity without having explored options.
Identity Moratorium
The status of individuals who are currently exploring various identities but have not yet made a commitment.
Imaginary Audience
The belief, often held by adolescents, that they are the focus of everyone else’s attention and concern.
imprinting
a form of rapid and irreversible learning that occurs during a critical period, typically in young animals, in which they form strong attachments to a specific individual or object.
insecure attachment
a pattern of attachment behavior characterized by anxiety, avoidance, or ambivalence in the relationship between an infant and their caregiver.
Insight
A sudden realization of a problem’s solution; a form of problem-solving where the answer seems to pop into the mind.
instinctive drift
the tendency of animals to revert to innate, instinctual behaviors that interfere with operant conditioning, despite training to the contrary.
intersex
a term used to describe individuals born with variations in sex characteristics that do not fit typical definitions of male or female.
Interval Schedule
A schedule of reinforcement where the first response is rewarded after a certain amount of time has passed.
intimacy
a close, interpersonal connection characterized by emotional closeness, trust, and vulnerability.
Ivan Pavlov
a Russian physiologist known for his research on classical conditioning, particularly his experiments with dogs, which demonstrated the conditioning of involuntary responses such as salivation.
Jean Piaget
a Swiss psychologist known for his theory of cognitive development, which describes how children actively construct their understanding of the world through a series of developmental stages.
John B. Watson
an American psychologist known as the founder of behaviorism and for his famous Little Albert experiment, which demonstrated classical conditioning in humans.
John Garcia
a psychologist known for his research on taste aversion learning, which showed that animals are more likely to associate illness with tastes that are novel or unusual.
Konrad Lorenz
an Austrian ethologist known for his research on imprinting and animal behavior, particularly with geese and ducks.
language
a system of communication consisting of symbols, such as words and gestures, that convey meaning and allow for the expression of thoughts, ideas, and emotions.
latent learning
a form of learning that occurs without reinforcement and may not be immediately evident in behavior, but becomes apparent when there is an incentive or motivation to demonstrate it.
law of effect
proposed by Edward L. Thorndike, this states that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated.
Learned Helplessness
A condition in which a person suffers from a sense of powerlessness, arising from a traumatic event or persistent failure to succeed.
learning
the process of acquiring new knowledge, skills, behaviors, or attitudes through experience, instruction, or observation.
Lev Vygotsky
a Soviet psychologist known for his sociocultural theory of cognitive development, which emphasizes the role of social interaction and cultural context in shaping cognitive growth.
linguistic determinism
the hypothesis that the structure of language influences or determines the way individuals perceive and think about the world.
linguistic relativism
the idea that differences in language structure or vocabulary can lead to differences in thought and perception across cultures.
longitudinal study
a research method that follows the same group of individuals over an extended period of time to examine developmental changes and continuity across the lifespan.
Macrosystem
The broader cultural context, including societal values, laws, and customs.
Margaret Harlow
a psychologist known for her research on attachment and maternal deprivation, conducted in collaboration with her husband, Harry.
Mary Ainsworth
a psychologist known for her research on attachment theory and the development of the “Strange Situation” procedure to assess attachment styles in infants.
maturation
the biologically programmed process of growth and development that unfolds over time, leading to changes in physical, cognitive, and social functioning.
menarche
the first occurrence of menstruation in females, typically occurring during puberty.
menopause
the natural cessation of menstruation and reproductive function in females, typically occurring around middle age.
Mesosystem
The interconnections between the microsystems, such as the relationship between family experiences and school experiences.
Microsystem
The immediate environment in which a person interacts, such as family, school, and peers.
mirror neurons
neurons that fire both when an individual performs an action and when they observe someone else performing the same action, suggesting a role in empathy, imitation, and social learning.
modeling
a form of observational learning in which individuals learn by observing and imitating the behaviors of others.
morpheme
the smallest unit of language that carries meaning, such as words, prefixes, suffixes, or grammatical markers.
Negative Punishment
The removal of a desired stimulus after a behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior occurring again.
negative reinforcement
the removal or avoidance of an aversive stimulus, which increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
neutral stimulus
a stimulus that initially does not elicit a response, but can become a conditioned stimulus through association with an unconditioned stimulus.
Noam Chomsky
a linguist, philosopher, and cognitive scientist known for his theories of generative grammar and universal grammar, which propose innate linguistic structures and rules underlying all human languages.
Object Permanence
The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched, typically developed during the sensorimotor stage of Piaget’s theory.
observational learning
a form of learning in which individuals acquire new behaviors or information by observing and imitating others, without direct reinforcement.
one-word stage
The one-word stage, also known as the holophrastic stage, is a developmental stage in language acquisition during which children typically use single words to convey entire meanings or concepts.
operant behavior
behavior that operates on the environment to produce consequences, which in turn affect the likelihood of the behavior occurring again in the future.
operant chamber
also known as a Skinner box, a controlled environment used in operant conditioning experiments to study animal behavior, typically equipped with levers or buttons for the animal to press in order to receive reinforcement.
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened or weakened by the consequences that follow it, such as reinforcement or punishment.
Overgeneralization
The application of a grammatical rule in cases where it doesn’t apply, often seen in children’s language development.
partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule
a reinforcement schedule in which only some occurrences of the desired behavior are reinforced, leading to slower extinction but greater resistance to extinction over time.
Paul Broca
a French neurologist known for his discovery of Broca’s area in the brain, which is associated with language production and speech.
Permissive Parenting
A lenient parenting style characterized by low demands and high responsiveness; parents are indulgent and may avoid confrontation.
Personal Fable
The belief held by many adolescents that they are unique and invincible.
phoneme
the smallest distinctive sound unit in a language, which can differentiate words and change their meanings.
Positive Punishment
The presentation of an aversive stimulus after a behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior occurring again.
positive reinforcement
the presentation of a desirable stimulus following a behavior, which increases the likelihood of that behavior being repeated in the future.
preoperational stage
In Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, the second stage, occurring from about 2 to 7 years old, characterized by symbolic thought, egocentrism, and the use of language and imagination.
preparedness
the biological predisposition to learn certain associations more easily than others due to their relevance to survival or evolutionary significance.
primary reinforcer
a stimulus that is inherently rewarding or satisfying, such as food, water, or relief from pain, without the need for learning.
primary sex characteristics
the physical structures and organs directly involved in reproduction, such as the reproductive organs and genitalia.
prosocial behavior
actions that benefit others or society as a whole, such as helping, sharing, and cooperation.
Psychosocial Development
Erikson’s theory that personality develops in a series of stages, each involving a specific crisis that must be resolved.
puberty
the period of physical and sexual maturation during adolescence, marked by the development of secondary sex characteristics and reproductive capability.
punishment
a consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior recurring, typically by presenting an aversive stimulus or removing a desirable one.
Ratio Schedule
A schedule of reinforcement where a response is reinforced after a specific number of responses.
Reflex
An automatic, involuntary response to a stimulus.
reinforcement
a consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior recurring, either by presenting a desirable stimulus (positive reinforcement) or removing an aversive one (negative reinforcement).
reinforcement schedule
determines how and when reinforcement is delivered following a behavior, such as fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, or variable interval.
relational aggression
a form of aggression that involves damaging or manipulating social relationships, such as spreading rumors or social exclusion.
respondent behavior
behavior that is automatically elicited by a stimulus, such as reflexes or physiological responses.
Reversibility
The understanding that objects can be changed and then returned back to their original form or condition, an important concept in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.
Robert Rescorla
a psychologist known for his research on classical conditioning and the contingency model of conditioning, which emphasizes the importance of the predictive relationship between the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus.
role
a set of expected behaviors, obligations, and responsibilities associated with a particular status or position in society.
Rooting Reflex
A newborn’s built-in reaction that occurs when the infant’s cheek is stroked, resulting in the baby turning its head toward the touch, looking for something to suck.
scaffold
the support or guidance provided to learners to help them acquire new skills or knowledge, gradually reducing as the learner becomes more competent.
schema
a mental framework or organized pattern of thought that helps individuals interpret and understand information about the world.
secondary sex characteristics
physical features that develop during puberty but are not directly involved in reproduction, such as body hair, breast development, and voice changes.
secure attachment
a healthy and positive emotional bond between an infant and their primary caregiver, characterized by trust, comfort, and a sense of security.
self-concept
an individual’s perception and evaluation of themselves, including beliefs, attitudes, and self-awareness.
Semantics
The meaning of words and sentences; the aspect of language concerned with meaning.
sensorimotor stage
the first stage of cognitive development in Jean Piaget’s theory, occurring from birth to about 2 years old, characterized by the infant’s exploration of the world through sensory experiences and motor actions.
Separation Anxiety
Distress shown by infants when a primary caregiver leaves, reflecting attachment bonds.
sex
biological characteristics that distinguish males and females, typically based on anatomy, chromosomes, and reproductive organs.
sexual aggression
behavior that involves using coercion, force, or manipulation to engage in unwanted sexual activity with another person.
sexual orientation
an individual’s enduring pattern of romantic, emotional, and sexual attractions to others, which may be heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual, among other identities.
sexuality
a person’s sexual orientation, behaviors, attitudes, beliefs, and values related to sex and intimacy.
shaping
a technique used in operant conditioning to gradually modify behavior by reinforcing successive approximations toward a desired behavior.
social clock
the culturally prescribed timeline for major life events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement, which influences individuals’ expectations and judgments about the timing of these events.
social identity
the part of an individual’s self-concept that is based on their identification with a particular social group, such as ethnicity, nationality, religion, or occupation.
social learning theory
proposed by Albert Bandura, this idea emphasizes the role of observation, imitation, and modeling in learning, suggesting that individuals learn through observing others’ behavior and its consequences.
social script
a set of expected behaviors, actions, and responses that guide interactions in specific social situations, such as greetings, conversations, or dating rituals.
spermarche
the onset of sperm production and ejaculation in males during puberty.
spontaneous recovery
the reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a period of time without reinforcement.
stimulus
any object, event, or experience that evokes a response from an organism, whether it’s biological or psychological.
strange situation
a laboratory procedure developed by Mary Ainsworth to assess the quality of attachment between an infant and their caregiver, based on the infant’s reactions to separations and reunions with the caregiver in a novel environment.
stranger anxiety
the fear or wariness that infants typically display when encountering unfamiliar people, usually beginning around 6 to 8 months of age.
Superstition
A behavior that is repeated because it appears to produce reinforcement, even though it is actually unnecessary.
Syntax
The set of rules that governs the structure of sentences in a language.
Taste Aversion
A learned avoidance of a particular food that develops after a negative experience, such as illness, associated with that food.
telegraphic speech
a stage of language development in which young children speak using short, simple sentences that mainly consist of nouns and verbs, omitting articles, prepositions, and other grammatical elements.
temperament
an individual’s characteristic patterns of mood, activity level, emotional reactivity, and attention span, which are relatively stable over time and across situations.
teratogens
substances or environmental factors that can cause birth defects or developmental abnormalities in the embryo or fetus, such as drugs, alcohol, or certain medications.
testosterone
a hormone primarily associated with male development and reproductive functions, such as the development of secondary sex characteristics and sperm production.
theory of mind
the ability to understand and attribute mental states, such as beliefs, desires, and intentions, to oneself and others, which is crucial for social cognition and perspective-taking.
two-word stage
a developmental milestone in language acquisition during which children begin to combine two words to form simple phrases or sentences, typically occurring around 18 to 24 months of age.
unconditioned response
an automatic and unlearned response to a stimulus, such as a reflex, that occurs naturally without prior conditioning.
unconditioned stimulus
a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers an unconditioned response without prior learning or conditioning.
universal grammar
a theory proposed by Noam Chomsky, suggesting that all human languages share a common underlying structure and set of principles, which are innate and genetically programmed.
Variable Schedule
A schedule of reinforcement where rewards are given after an unpredictable number of responses or an unpredictable amount of time.
variable-interval schedule
a reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement is delivered after varying time intervals, with the average time between reinforcements remaining consistent.
variable-ratio schedule
a reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement is delivered after a variable number of responses, with the average number of responses required for reinforcement remaining consistent.
Visual Cliff
An experiment designed to assess an infant’s depth perception by using a glass-covered platform that appears to drop off sharply.
Wernicke’s area
a region of the brain located in the left temporal lobe, involved in language comprehension and processing.
X chromosome
one of the two sex chromosomes, typically found in pairs in females and singly in males, carrying genes that determine various traits and characteristics.
Y chromosome
one of the two sex chromosomes, typically found singly in males and absent in females, carrying genes related to male development and sex determination.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
Vygotsky’s concept of the difference between what a learner can do without help and what they can do with help.
