Unit 3 - Development & Learning Flashcards
accommodation
In the context of Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, the process of modifying existing cognitive schemas (mental structures) or creating new ones to incorporate new information or experiences.
acquisition
the initial stage of learning when a response is first established and gradually strengthened through reinforcement
adolescence
the transitional stage of physical and psychological development that generally occurs during the teenage years, marked by puberty, identity exploration, and increased autonomy.
Adulthood
The stage of life after adolescence, characterized by full development and maturity, typically defined by milestones such as career establishment and family formation.
Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)
Potentially traumatic events that occur in childhood, such as abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction.
aggression
behavior that is intended to cause harm or injury to another person or object
Albert Bandura
a psychologist known for his contributions to social learning theory and the concept of self-efficacy; conducted the famous Bobo doll experiment, which demonstrated observational learning and the influence of role models on behavior.
Alfred Kinsey
a biologist and sexologist known for his pioneering research on human sexuality; provided extensive data on sexual behavior in American men and women.
Alice Eagly
a psychologist known for her research on gender roles and social psychology. She has contributed to the understanding of gender stereotypes and the role of socialization in shaping behavior.
androgyny
the combination of masculine and feminine characteristics or qualities in an individual, challenging traditional gender roles and stereotypes.
Animism
The belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action, common in young children.
antisocial behavior
actions that violate social norms, disregard the rights of others, and often involve aggression, deceit, or rule-breaking.
aphasia
a language disorder caused by damage to the brain, typically resulting in difficulty with language production, comprehension, or both.
asexual
a lack of sexual attraction to others or a lack of interest in sexual activity.
assimilation
the process of incorporating new information or experiences into existing cognitive schemas or mental structures
associative learning
a type of learning that involves forming associations or connections between stimuli and responses, such as classical and operant conditioning
attachment
the emotional bond that forms between an infant and their primary caregiver, typically characterized by proximity seeking, distress upon separation, and a sense of security.
Authoritarian Parenting
A strict parenting style characterized by high demands and low responsiveness; parents expect obedience and use punishment.
Authoritative Parenting
A parenting style characterized by high demands and high responsiveness; parents set clear standards and are supportive.
B. F. Skinner
a psychologist known for his work in behaviorism and operant conditioning; developed the operant chamber, a controlled environment for studying behavior, and introduced concepts such as reinforcement and schedules of reinforcement.
babbling stage
a developmental milestone in infancy when infants produce repetitive, nonsensical sounds as they experiment with vocalizations
basic trust
according to Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory, the sense of security and confidence in the world that develops during infancy through consistent and nurturing caregiving
behaviorism
a psychological approach that emphasizes the study of observable behavior and the role of environmental stimuli in shaping behavior, while often disregarding internal mental processes
Benjamin Lee Whorf
a linguist known for his hypothesis of linguistic relativity, which suggests that the structure of language influences the way individuals perceive and think about the world
Biological Preparedness
The idea that people and animals are inherently inclined to form associations between certain stimuli and responses.
Broca’s area
a region of the brain located in the frontal lobe, responsible for speech production and language processing
Carl Wernicke
a neurologist known for identifying Wernicke’s area, a brain region associated with language comprehension and processing
Carol Gilligan
a psychologist known for her work on gender and moral development. She criticized Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of moral development for its focus on justice and argued for a more relational approach to ethics
Chronosystem
The pattern of environmental events and transitions over the life course, as well as socio-historical circumstances.
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response
cognition
mental processes such as perception, thinking, memory, and problem-solving
cognitive map
a mental representation of one’s spatial environment, including landmarks, routes, and relationships between locations
cognitve learning
earning that involves mental processes such as attention, perception, memory, and problem-solving, as opposed to purely behavioral responses
concrete operational stage
In Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, the third stage, occurring from about 7 to 11 years old, characterized by the ability to think logically about concrete events and grasp concrete analogies.
conditioned reinforcer
a previously neutral stimulus that becomes reinforcing through its association with a primary reinforcer.
conditioned response
a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus, acquired through classical conditioning
conditioned stimulus
a previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus, elicits a conditioned response.
Conditioning
The process of learning associations between environmental events and behavioral responses.
conservation
the understanding that certain properties of objects, such as quantity, volume, or number, remain constant despite changes in their physical appearance.
continuous reinforcement schedule
a reinforcement schedule in which every occurrence of the desired behavior is reinforced
critical period
a developmental stage during which an organism is particularly sensitive to environmental influences and experiences, which are necessary for the normal development of certain abilities or behaviors
cross-sectional study
a research method that compares individuals of different ages or developmental stages at a single point in time to examine age-related differences
Crystallized Intelligence
The ability to use learned knowledge and experience.
Dementia
A group of symptoms affecting memory, thinking, and social abilities severely enough to interfere with daily functioning.
developmental psychology
the branch of psychology that studies the physical, cognitive, and social changes that occur throughout the lifespan, from infancy to old age
Diana Baumrind
a psychologist known for her research on parenting styles. She identified three main parenting styles -authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive.
discrimination
the ability to respond differently to similar but distinct stimuli, or to treat individuals or groups differently based on prejudiced beliefs or attitudes
discriminative stimulus
a cue or signal that indicates the presence of reinforcement for a particular behavior
ecological systems theory
proposed by Urie Bronfenbrenner, this theory emphasizes the influence of various environmental systems (such as family, school, community) on individual development
Edward C. Tolman
a psychologist known for his research on cognitive maps and latent learning, which demonstrated that learning can occur without reinforcement and may not be immediately evident in behavior.
Edward L. Thorndike
a psychologist known for his research on animal learning and the law of effect, which states that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated.
egocentrism
the inability to take another person’s perspective or understand that others may have different thoughts, feelings, or beliefs.
emerging adulthood
a developmental stage proposed by Jeffrey Arnett, characterized by identity exploration, instability, self-focus, and possibilities, typically occurring in the late teens and early twenties.
Erik Erikson
a psychologist known for his theory of psychosocial development, which describes eight stages of development spanning from infancy to old age, each characterized by a unique psychosocial crisis or challenge.
estrogen
a hormone primarily associated with the development of female secondary sexual characteristics and the regulation of the menstrual cycle.
Exosystem
The larger social system in which the individual does not function directly but which affects the person’s microsystem, such as a parent’s workplace.
extinction
the gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus.
fetal alcohol syndrome
a group of physical and mental birth defects that occur in children whose mothers consumed alcohol during pregnancy.
Fixed Schedule
A schedule of reinforcement where rewards are given after a fixed number of responses or a fixed amount of time.
fixed-interval schedule
a reinforcement schedule in which the first response is rewarded only after a specified time interval has elapsed.
fixed-ratio schedule
a reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement is delivered after a fixed number of responses.
Fluid Intelligence
The capacity to think logically and solve problems in novel situations, independent of acquired knowledge.
formal operational stage
In Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, the fourth stage, occurring from about age 12 through adulthood, characterized by the ability to think abstractly, reason logically, and engage in hypothetical thinking.
gender
the socially constructed roles, behaviors, expressions, and identities associated with being male or female, which can vary across different cultures and societies.
gender identity
an individual’s personal sense of their own gender, which may or may not align with the sex assigned to them at birth.
gender role
the set of societal expectations, norms, and behaviors that are typically associated with being male or female in a particular culture or society.
gender typing
the process by which individuals acquire behaviors, preferences, and roles that are typically associated with their gender, often through socialization and reinforcement.
generalization
the tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to a conditioned stimulus, even if they have not been explicitly paired with the unconditioned stimulus.
grammar
the set of rules and principles that govern the structure, composition, and use of language, including syntax, morphology, and semantics.
habituation
a decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated or prolonged exposure, reflecting a form of learning in which the stimulus becomes less novel or salient over time.
Harry Harlow
a psychologist known for his research on attachment and social isolation in rhesus monkeys, particularly his experiments with surrogate mothers made of wire or cloth.
higher-order conditioning
a form of classical conditioning in which a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus, leading the new stimulus to elicit a conditioned response.
identity
the distinct characteristics, beliefs, values, and experiences that define an individual’s sense of self and contribute to their understanding of who they are.
Identity Achievement
The status of individuals who have explored various identities and made a commitment to one.
Identity Diffusion
The status of individuals who have neither explored nor made a commitment to any identity.
