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AP Psych > Unit 1 - Biological Bases > Flashcards

Unit 1 - Biological Bases Flashcards

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1
Q

absolute threshold

A

The minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time.

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2
Q

accomodation

A

In vision, the process by which the lens of the eye shifts to focus on a particular object.

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3
Q

acetylcholine

A

A neurotransmitter involved in muscle activation, memory, and learning.

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4
Q

action potential

A

A brief electrical charge that travels down the axon of a neuron, generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the neuron’s membrane.

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5
Q

Activation-Synthesis Theory

A

A theory of dreaming that suggests dreams are the brain’s attempt to make sense of random neural activity.

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6
Q

addiction

A

A complex condition characterized by compulsive drug use or behaviors despite harmful consequences.

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7
Q

agonist

A

A drug or chemical that enhances the activity of neurotransmitters.

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8
Q

Alcohol

A

A depressant that slows down the central nervous system, impairing cognitive and motor functions.

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9
Q

all-or-none response

A

The principle that a neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all.

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10
Q

alpha waves

A

The relatively slow brain waves associated with relaxation and wakefulness.

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11
Q

Amplitude

A

The height of a wave, which determines the loudness of a sound.

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12
Q

amygdala

A

A limbic system structure involved in processing emotions, particularly fear and aggression.

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13
Q

antagonist

A

A drug or chemical that inhibits or blocks the action of neurotransmitters.

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14
Q

Aphasia

A

A condition characterized by the loss of ability to understand or express speech.

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15
Q

association areas

A

Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions but are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.

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16
Q

audition

A

The sense of hearing.

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17
Q

Auditory Cortex

A

The part of the brain that processes auditory information.

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18
Q

autonomic nervous system

A

The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary functions like heart rate, digestion, and glandular secretion.

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19
Q

axon

A

The extension of a neuron through which neural impulses are sent.

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20
Q

barbiturates

A

A class of drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment.

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21
Q

behavior genetics

A

The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.

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22
Q

biological psychology

A

A branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior.

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23
Q

biopsychosocial approach

A

An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis.

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24
Q

blind spot

A

The point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a small gap in the field of vision.

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25
Q

blindsight

A

A condition in which a person can respond to visual stimuli without consciously experiencing them.

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26
Q

bottom-up processing

A

Analysis that begins with sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information.

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27
Q

brainstem

A

The oldest part and central core of the brain, responsible for automatic survival functions.

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28
Q

Broca’s Area

A

A region in the frontal lobe of the brain associated with speech production.

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29
Q

Caffeine

A

A stimulant found in coffee, tea, and many soft drinks that increases alertness and reduces fatigue.

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30
Q

central nervous system

A

The brain and spinal cord, responsible for processing and coordinating information.

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31
Q

cerebellum

A

A structure in the hindbrain that helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance.

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32
Q

cerebral cortex

A

The outer layer of the brain responsible for complex cognitive processes such as thinking, planning, and language.

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33
Q

Charles Darwin

A

An English naturalist who proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection.

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34
Q

circadian rhythm

A

The biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle.

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35
Q

Cocaine

A

A powerful stimulant drug that increases levels of dopamine in the brain, leading to intense euphoria and increased energy.

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36
Q

cochlea

A

A coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses.

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37
Q

cochlear implant

A

A device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea.

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38
Q

cognitive neuroscience

A

The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language).

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39
Q

computed tomography (CT)

A

A scanning technique using multiple X-rays to construct a 3D image of the brain’s structure.

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40
Q

conduction hearing loss

A

Hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.

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41
Q

cones

A

Photoreceptor cells in the retina that are responsible for color vision and fine detail.

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42
Q

consciousness

A

Our awareness of ourselves and our environment.

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43
Q

Consolidation Theory

A

The theory that sleep helps strengthen the neural connections that form our memories.

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44
Q

Contralateral Control

A

The principle that each hemisphere of the brain controls the opposite side of the body.

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45
Q

cornea

A

The transparent outer layer of the eye that covers the pupil and iris and helps focus incoming light.

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46
Q

corpus callosum

A

The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

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47
Q

David Hubel

A

A Canadian neurophysiologist known for his work with Torsten Wiesel on the processing of visual information in the brain.

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48
Q

delta waves

A

The large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep.

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49
Q

dendrites

A

Branchlike extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.

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50
Q

Depolarization

A

The process by which a neuron’s membrane potential becomes less negative, leading to the firing of an action potential.

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51
Q

depressants

A

Drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.

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52
Q

Dichromatism

A

A type of color blindness where one of the three basic color mechanisms is absent or not functioning.

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53
Q

difference threshold

A

The minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time; also known as just noticeable difference (JND).

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54
Q

Dopamine

A

A neurotransmitter involved in reward, motivation, and motor control.

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55
Q

dream

A

A sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind.

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56
Q

dual processing

A

The idea that information is simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.

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57
Q

electroencephalogram (EEG)

A

A recording of the electrical waves sweeping across the brain’s surface, measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

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58
Q

embodied cognition

A

The theory that cognition is influenced by the body’s interactions with the environment.

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59
Q

endocrine system

A

The body’s “slow” chemical communication system, consisting of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

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60
Q

endorphins

A

Neurotransmitters that are natural painkillers produced by the brain.

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61
Q

environment

A

Every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us.

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62
Q

epigenetics

A

The study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change.

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63
Q

Ernst Weber

A

A German physician credited with the formulation of Weber’s law, which describes the relationship between the magnitude of a physical stimulus and the intensity of its perceived sensation.

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64
Q

eugenics

A

A controversial and unethical movement aimed at improving the genetic quality of the human population.

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65
Q

evolutionary psychology

A

The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.

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66
Q

Excitatory Neurotransmitter

A

A neurotransmitter that promotes the firing of neurons.

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67
Q

Farsightedness (Hyperopia)

A

A condition where distant objects can be seen clearly, but close objects appear blurry.

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68
Q

feature detectors

A

Nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement.

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69
Q

fMRI

A

A technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans.

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70
Q

forebrain

A

The largest and most prominent part of the brain, including the cerebral cortex and subcortical structures.

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71
Q

fovea

A

The central focal point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster.

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72
Q

fraternal (dizygotic) twins

A

Twins who develop from separate eggs and are no more similar genetically than non-twin siblings.

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73
Q

frequency

A

The number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time.

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74
Q

frequency theory

A

The theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch.

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75
Q

frontal lobes

A

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead, involved in planning and judgment.

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76
Q

GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid)

A

The main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.

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77
Q

Ganglion Cells

A

Neurons in the retina that relay information from the photoreceptors to the brain.

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78
Q

gate-control theory

A

The theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain.

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79
Q

genes

A

The biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein.

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80
Q

genome

A

The complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism’s chromosomes.

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81
Q

glial cells

A

Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons, and play a role in learning and thinking.

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82
Q

Glutamate

A

The main excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain.

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83
Q

gustation

A

The sense of taste.

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84
Q

Gustav Fechner

A

A German psychologist known for his work in psychophysics, particularly his development of Weber’s law and the concept of the just noticeable difference.

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85
Q

hallucinations

A

Perceptions that have no direct external cause, arising from disorders such as schizophrenia, sensory deprivation, or drug-induced states.

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86
Q

hallucinogens

A

Drugs that alter perception and cause hallucinations or profound distortions in a person’s perceptions of reality.

87
Q

heredity

A

The genetic transmission of characteristics from parents to offspring.

88
Q

Heroin

A

An opioid drug that produces intense euphoria and pain relief, highly addictive.

89
Q

hindbrain

A

The lower part of the brainstem, comprising the medulla, pons, and cerebellum, responsible for basic life functions.

90
Q

hippocampus

A

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

91
Q

hormones

A

Chemical messengers produced by the endocrine glands and circulated in the bloodstream, regulating the activity of target cells or organs.

92
Q

hue

A

The dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, etc.

93
Q

hypnagogic sensations

A

Sensations experienced during the transition from wakefulness to sleep, including hallucinations, muscle jerks, and sensations of falling.

94
Q

hypothalamus

A

A neural structure lying below the thalamus, regulating bodily functions such as hunger, thirst, body temperature, and sexual behavior, and controlling the pituitary gland.

95
Q

identical (monozygotic) twins

A

Twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms.

96
Q

Inhibitory Neurotransmitter

A

A neurotransmitter that inhibits the firing of neurons.

97
Q

inner ear

A

The innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs, involved in balance and hearing.

98
Q

insomnia

A

Persistent problems falling asleep or staying asleep.

99
Q

intensity

A

The amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness.

100
Q

interneurons

A

Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.

101
Q

iris

A

The colored part of the eye that regulates the size of the pupil by controlling the amount of light entering the eye.

102
Q

Jet Lag

A

A temporary sleep disorder that occurs when a person’s internal body clock is out of sync with the time zone they are in.

103
Q

Just Noticeable Difference (JND)

A

The minimum difference in stimulation that a person can detect 50% of the time.

104
Q

kinesthesis

A

The sense of the body’s position and movement of body parts relative to each other.

105
Q

lens

A

The transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina.

106
Q

lesion

A

Damage to body tissue, often caused by disease or injury.

107
Q

limbic system

A

A set of structures in the brain, including the amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus, involved in emotion, motivation, and memory.

108
Q

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

A

A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce detailed images of the brain’s soft tissue.

109
Q

magnetoencephalography (MEG)

A

A brain imaging technique that measures magnetic fields generated by neuronal activity in the brain.

110
Q

Marijuana

A

A drug containing THC that alters mood, perception, and cognitive function.

111
Q

medulla

A

The base of the brainstem, controlling heartbeat and breathing.

112
Q

Michael Gazzaniga

A

A pioneering neuroscientist known for his split-brain research, which revealed insights into the functional differences between the brain’s hemispheres.

113
Q

midbrain

A

A small region of the brainstem involved in auditory and visual processing and regulation of motor movements.

114
Q

middle ear

A

The chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window.

115
Q

Monochromatism

A

Complete color blindness where only shades of grey are perceived, with no ability to distinguish colors.

116
Q

motor (efferent) neurons

A

Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.

117
Q

motor cortex

A

An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.

118
Q

Multiple Sclerosis

A

A disease in which the immune system attacks the protective covering of nerves, leading to communication problems between the brain and the rest of the body.

119
Q

mutation

A

A random error in gene replication that leads to a change.

120
Q

Myasthenia Gravis

A

An autoimmune disorder that affects communication between nerves and muscles, leading to muscle weakness.

121
Q

myelin

A

A fatty tissue layer that encases the axons of some neurons, speeding up the neural impulses.

122
Q

narcolepsy

A

A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks, often triggered by strong emotions.

123
Q

natural selection

A

The principle that heritable traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.

124
Q

nature-nurture issue

A

The debate over the relative contributions of genetic inheritance and environmental factors to human development.

125
Q

near-death experience

A

An altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death, often including out-of-body experiences and feelings of peace.

126
Q

Nearsightedness (Myopia)

A

A condition where close objects are seen clearly, but distant objects are blurry.

127
Q

nervous system

A

The body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.

128
Q

neurogenesis

A

The formation of new neurons.

129
Q

neuron

A

A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.

130
Q

neuroplasticity

A

The brain’s ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life, particularly in response to learning, experience, or injury.

131
Q

neurotransmitters

A

Chemical messengers that transmit signals across the synaptic gap between neurons.

132
Q

Norepinephrine

A

A neurotransmitter and hormone involved in arousal and alertness.

133
Q

NREM sleep

A

Non-Rapid Eye Movement sleep; the sleep stages characterized by slow brain waves, relaxed muscles, and decreased heart rate and breathing.

134
Q

occipital lobes

A

Regions of the cerebral cortex located at the back of the brain, responsible for processing visual information.

135
Q

Oleogustus

A

A proposed sixth taste sensation for the taste of fat.

136
Q

olfaction

A

The sense of smell.

137
Q

opioids

A

A class of drugs that act on opioid receptors to produce morphine-like effects, including pain relief and feelings of euphoria.

138
Q

opponent-process theory

A

A theory of color vision proposing that the brain processes color information in pairs of complementary colors (e.g., red-green, blue-yellow).

139
Q

optic nerve

A

The bundle of nerve fibers that carries visual information from the retina to the brain.

140
Q

parallel processing

A

The brain’s ability to process multiple aspects of a problem or stimulus simultaneously.

141
Q

parasympathetic nervous system

A

The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy and promoting rest and digestion.

142
Q

parietal lobes

A

Regions of the cerebral cortex located at the top of the brain, responsible for processing sensory information such as touch and spatial awareness.

143
Q

perception

A

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events.

144
Q

peripheral nervous system

A

The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body, transmitting information to and from the brain and spinal cord.

145
Q

Pheromones

A

Chemicals secreted by animals that influence the behavior or physiology of others of the same species.

146
Q

pitch

A

A tone’s experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency.

147
Q

Pituitary Gland

A

The “master gland” of the endocrine system that regulates other glands and controls various bodily functions.

148
Q

place theory

A

The theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated.

149
Q

Plasticity

A

The brain’s ability to change and adapt as a result of experience.

150
Q

positron resonance tomography (PET)

A

A brain imaging technique that measures brain activity by detecting radioactive glucose uptake in active brain areas.

151
Q

priming

A

The activation of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response.

152
Q

Prosopagnosia

A

A neurological disorder characterized by the inability to recognize faces, also known as face blindness.

153
Q

psychoactive drug

A

A chemical substance that alters perception, mood, consciousness, cognition, or behavior.

154
Q

psychophysics

A

The study of the relationship between physical characteristics of stimuli and our psychological experience of them.

155
Q

pupil

A

The adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters.

156
Q

reflex

A

A simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk reflex.

157
Q

Reflex Arc

A

The neural pathway that controls a reflex action.

158
Q

refractory period

A

A brief period after a neuron has fired during which it cannot generate another action potential.

159
Q

REM rebound

A

The tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation.

160
Q

REM sleep

A

Rapid Eye Movement sleep; a stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, vivid dreams, and muscle paralysis.

161
Q

REM sleep behavior disorder

A

A sleep disorder characterized by the acting out of violent or dramatic dreams during REM sleep.

162
Q

Resting Potential

A

The electrical charge of a neuron when it is not active.

163
Q

Reticular Activating System

A

A network of neurons in the brainstem involved in arousal and attention.

164
Q

reticular formation

A

A network of neurons running through the core of the brainstem, involved in controlling arousal and attention.

165
Q

retina

A

The light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing receptor cells (rods and cones) and layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information.

166
Q

reuptake

A

The reabsorption of neurotransmitters by the sending neuron after they have been released into the synaptic gap.

167
Q

Reuptake Inhibitors

A

Medications that block the reabsorption of neurotransmitters into neurons, increasing their levels in the brain.

168
Q

rods

A

Retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don’t respond.

169
Q

Roger Sperry

A

A neuropsychologist who won the Nobel Prize for his split-brain research, showing functional differences between the brain’s hemispheres.

170
Q

Semicircular Canals

A

Structures in the inner ear involved in maintaining balance and detecting head movements.

171
Q

sensation

A

The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.

172
Q

sensorineural hearing loss

A

Hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea’s hair cells or the auditory nerve.

173
Q

sensory (afferent) neurons

A

Neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.

174
Q

sensory adaptation

A

Diminished sensitivity to an unchanging stimulus over time.

175
Q

sensory interaction

A

The principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste.

176
Q

sensory receptors

A

Specialized cells that detect sensory stimuli and convert them into neural impulses to be sent to the brain.

177
Q

sequential processing

A

The processing of one aspect of a stimulus at a time, used when we focus attention on new or complex tasks.

178
Q

Serotonin

A

A neurotransmitter that affects mood, appetite, and sleep.

179
Q

Sigmund Freud

A

An Austrian neurologist known as the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst.

180
Q

signal detection theory

A

A theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus amid background noise.

181
Q

sleep

A

A natural state of rest for the body and mind, characterized by altered consciousness, reduced sensory activity, and inactivity of nearly all voluntary muscles.

182
Q

sleep apnea

A

A sleep disorder characterized by pauses in breathing or shallow breaths during sleep, leading to disrupted sleep and daytime fatigue.

183
Q

somatic nervous system

A

The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles and transmits sensory information to the central nervous system.

184
Q

somatosensory cortex

A

A brain region located in the parietal lobe that processes sensory information from the skin and internal body receptors for touch, temperature, and body position.

185
Q

Somnambulism

A

A disorder in which a person walks or performs other complex behaviors while asleep.

186
Q

Sound Localization

A

The process by which the position of a sound source is determined.

187
Q

Spinal Cord

A

The part of the central nervous system that transmits signals between the brain and the rest of the body.

188
Q

split brain procedure

A

A surgical procedure that involves severing the corpus callosum, the bundle of nerve fibers connecting the brain’s hemispheres, typically done to treat severe epilepsy.

189
Q

stimulants

A

Drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions, such as caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, and cocaine.

190
Q

subliminal

A

Below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness.

191
Q

Substance P

A

A neurotransmitter involved in the transmission of pain signals.

192
Q

substance use disorder

A

A condition characterized by continued use of a substance despite significant substance-related problems.

193
Q

Supertasters

A

Individuals with heightened sensitivity to all tastes and mouth sensations.

194
Q

suprachiasmatic nucleus

A

A tiny region of the hypothalamus that acts as the body’s internal clock, regulating circadian rhythms such as the sleep-wake cycle.

195
Q

sympathetic nervous system

A

The division of the autonomic nervous system that mobilizes the body’s resources during stress and emergencies, preparing the body for “fight or flight” responses.

196
Q

synapse

A

The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron, where neurotransmitters are released.

197
Q

Synesthesia

A

A condition in which one sense is simultaneously perceived as if by one or more additional senses.

198
Q

temporal lobes

A

The regions of the cerebral cortex located above the ears, responsible for processing auditory information and containing areas involved in memory, language comprehension, and emotion.

199
Q

thalamus

A

The brain’s sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem, relaying sensory information (except for smell) to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex.

200
Q

threshold

A

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

201
Q

tolerance

A

The diminishing effect of a drug with regular use, requiring larger doses to achieve the same effect.

202
Q

top-down processing

A

Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations.

203
Q

Torsten Wiesel

A

A Swedish neurophysiologist known for his collaborative work with David Hubel, elucidating the visual processing system and its role in perception.

204
Q

transduction

A

The process of converting one form of energy into another, such as sensory stimuli into neural impulses.

205
Q

Umami

A

One of the five basic tastes, often described as savory or meaty.

206
Q

vestibular sense

A

The sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance.

207
Q

Visual Accommodation

A

The process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus on objects at different distances.

208
Q

Visual Cortex

A

The part of the brain that processes visual information.

209
Q

Volley Principle

A

A theory of hearing which states that groups of neurons respond to sound by firing action potentials slightly out of phase with one another.

210
Q

wavelength

A

The distance from the peak of one wave to the peak of the next wave, determining the wave’s color (in vision) or pitch (in audition).

211
Q

Weber’s Law

A

The principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage rather than a constant amount.

212
Q

Wernicke’s Area

A

A region in the temporal lobe of the brain associated with language comprehension.

213
Q

withdrawal

A

The discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug or behavior.

214
Q

Young-Helmholtz (Trichromatic) Theory

A

The theory that the retina contains three different types of color receptors (cones)—red, green, and blue—that can produce any color by combining the three.

AP Psych (7 decks)

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