Unit 2 - Cognition Flashcards
accomodation
In Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, the process of modifying existing cognitive structures in response to new information or experiences.
achievement test
A test designed to assess what a person has learned or accomplished in a particular area, such as academic subjects or job-related skills.
Alfred Binet
A French psychologist known for developing the first intelligence test, which aimed to measure children’s mental abilities and predict their academic success.
algorithm
A step-by-step procedure or formula for solving a problem, often involving repetitive operations.
Alzheimer’s Disease
A progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by memory loss, language deterioration, and impaired ability to mentally manipulate visual information.
Amnesia
A significant memory loss that is too extensive to be due to normal forgetting.
Amos Tversky
A cognitive psychologist known for his collaboration with Daniel Kahneman on decision-making and heuristics.
anterograde amnesia
A type of memory impairment characterized by the inability to form new memories after a specific event or injury, while memories from before the event remain intact.
aptitude test
A test designed to assess a person’s potential for learning or ability to perform in a particular area, such as intelligence tests or vocational aptitude tests.
assimilation
In Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, the process of incorporating new information or experiences into existing cognitive structures or schemas.
Attention
The cognitive process of selectively focusing on a specific aspect of information while ignoring other perceivable information.
Autobiographical Memory
A person’s memory for events and issues related to oneself.
autokinetic effect
A perceptual phenomenon where a stationary point of light appears to move in a dark environment due to small eye movements.
automatic processing
The unconscious processing of information that requires minimal attention and effort, such as routine tasks or well-learned skills.
availability heuristic
A mental shortcut where people make judgments based on the ease with which examples come to mind, often leading to overestimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory.
belief perserverance
The tendency to maintain one’s beliefs even in the face of contradictory evidence.
binocular cue
Depth cues that rely on information from both eyes to perceive depth and distance, such as retinal disparity and convergence.
Bottom-Up Processing
An approach to perception that starts with incoming stimuli and builds up to a final perception; involves analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information.
Carol Dweck
A psychologist known for her research on motivation and mindset, particularly the concepts of fixed mindset and growth mindset.
Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory
A contemporary theory of intelligence proposing that intelligence is composed of multiple distinct abilities, including fluid intelligence, crystallized intelligence, and various specific cognitive skills.
central executive
In Baddeley’s model of working memory, the component responsible for coordinating and controlling cognitive processes, including attention, planning, and decision-making.
Change Blindness
A phenomenon in visual perception where changes in a visual stimulus are not noticed by the observer.
Charles Spearman
A British psychologist known for his work on intelligence and the development of factor analysis, which identified a general factor of intelligence (g factor) underlying performance on cognitive tasks.
chunking
Organizing information into smaller, more manageable units or chunks to improve memory and processing efficiency.
Cocktail Party Effect
The phenomenon of being able to focus one’s auditory attention on a particular stimulus while filtering out a range of other stimuli, like hearing your name in a noisy room.
cognition
The mental processes involved in acquiring, processing, storing, and retrieving information, including perception, thinking, memory, and problem-solving.
cohort
A group of individuals who share a common characteristic or experience, such as age or generation, and are studied over time in longitudinal research.
color constancy
The perceptual phenomenon where the perceived color of an object remains relatively constant under different lighting conditions.
concept
A mental category or representation of objects, events, or ideas that share common features or characteristics.
confirmation bias
The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one’s preexisting beliefs or hypotheses while ignoring or discounting contradictory evidence.
construct validity
The extent to which a test or measure accurately assesses the theoretical construct or concept it is intended to measure.
Constructive Memory
The process of constructing a memory by integrating new information with existing knowledge.
content validity
The extent to which a test or measure adequately samples the domain of interest and includes all relevant aspects of the construct being assessed.
Context-Dependent Memory
The improved recall of information when the context present at encoding and retrieval are the same.
convergence
A binocular depth cue where the eyes turn inward or converge to focus on nearby objects.
convergent thinking
A type of thinking characterized by narrowing down possible solutions to find a single correct answer, often associated with traditional problem-solving tasks.
creativity
The ability to generate novel and valuable ideas, solutions, or products that are meaningful or useful in a particular context.
cross-sectional study
A research design that compares different groups of individuals at a single point in time to examine age-related differences.
crystallized intelligence
Acquired knowledge and skills accumulated over a lifetime, often measured by vocabulary tests and general knowledge assessments.
Daniel Kahnman
A psychologist known for his work on decision-making, heuristics, and biases, particularly in collaboration with Amos Tversky.
David Weschler
An American psychologist known for developing intelligence tests, including the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC).
deep processing
A type of encoding that involves elaborative rehearsal and meaningful analysis of information, leading to better long-term retention.
deja vu
A feeling of familiarity or recognition of a current situation or experience as if it has been previously experienced, even though it is objectively new or unfamiliar.
depth perception
The ability to perceive the distance and three-dimensional spatial relationships of objects in the environment.
Distributed Practice
A practice schedule that involves intervals of rest between sessions of learning.
Divergent Thinking
A thought process used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions.
echoic memory
The sensory memory system responsible for the temporary storage and processing of auditory information, often referred to as “echoes” of sounds.
effortful memory
The intentional and conscious processing of information to encode, store, and retrieve it from memory, requiring cognitive effort and attention.
Elizabeth Loftus
A cognitive psychologist known for her research on eyewitness memory, misinformation effect, and false memories.
emotional intelligence
The ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions effectively in oneself and others.
Encoding
The process of transforming sensory input into a form that can be stored in memory.
Encoding Failure
The failure to process information into memory.
encoding specificity principle
The principle that retrieval of information is most effective when the conditions at encoding and retrieval are similar.
episodic memory
A type of long-term memory that involves the recollection of specific events, situations, and experiences with associated contextual details.
Eric Kandel
An American neuroscientist known for his research on memory, particularly synaptic plasticity and the cellular basis of learning and memory.
executive functions
Higher-level cognitive processes involved in goal setting, planning, problem-solving, decision-making, and self-regulation.
explicit memory
Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously recall and declare, also known as declarative memory.
factor analysis
A statistical technique used to identify and analyze the underlying structure of correlations between variables, often used to identify the factors underlying intelligence.
figure-ground
A gestalt principle of perception where we perceive objects as distinct from their background.
fixation
In problem-solving, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective, often due to mental set or functional fixedness.
fixed mindset
The belief that intelligence, abilities, and talents are fixed traits that cannot be changed or developed.
flashbulb memory
A vivid and detailed memory of a significant and emotionally charged event, often recalled with high confidence and accuracy.
fluid intelligence
The ability to think logically and solve problems in novel situations, independent of acquired knowledge and experience.
Flynn effect
The observed trend of increasing average intelligence test scores over time, named after psychologist James Flynn.
Forgetting Curve
A graph showing the decline of memory retention over time.
framing
The way information is presented or framed can influence decision-making and judgment by highlighting certain aspects of the information while downplaying others.
Francis Galton
A British scientist known for his contributions to the study of individual differences and intelligence testing, as well as his work in eugenics.
Functional Fixedness
A cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used.
Gambler’s Fallacy
The mistaken belief that if something happens more frequently than normal during a given period, it will happen less frequently in the future, or vice versa.
general intelligence
A hypothetical construct representing the general intelligence factor underlying performance on various cognitive tasks.
George A. Miller
An American psychologist known for his contributions to cognitive psychology, including research on memory, language processing, and information processing.
gestalt
A German word meaning “form” or “pattern,” referring to the perceptual tendency to organize sensory information into meaningful wholes.
grit
A personality trait characterized by passion, perseverance, and a strong motivation to achieve long-term goals.
grouping
The perceptual tendency to organize elements into meaningful groups or categories based on similarity, proximity, continuity, or closure.
growth mindset
The belief that intelligence, abilities, and talents can be developed through effort, practice, and learning.
Hermann Ebbinghaus
A German psychologist known for his pioneering research on memory, particularly the forgetting curve and the spacing effect.
heuristic
A mental shortcut or rule of thumb that simplifies problem-solving and decision-making, often leading to efficient but not always accurate judgments.
hippocampus
A brain structure located in the limbic system, involved in memory consolidation, spatial navigation, and learning.
Howard Gardner
An American psychologist known for his theory of multiple intelligences, which proposes that intelligence consists of distinct abilities across various domains.
iconic memory
The sensory memory system responsible for the temporary storage and processing of visual information, often referred to as “iconic” images.
implicit memory
Memory of skills, procedures, or associations that are expressed through performance or behavior without conscious awareness.
inattentional blindness
The failure to notice unexpected objects or events when attention is focused elsewhere.
Infantile Amnesia
The inability to retrieve memories from much before age 3.
insight
The sudden realization or understanding of a problem’s solution that contrasts with more incremental problem-solving methods.
intelligence
A mental ability consisting of the capacity to learn from experience, solve problems, adapt to new situations, and use knowledge to achieve goals.
intelligence quotient
A numerical score derived from standardized intelligence tests, typically representing a person’s relative intelligence compared to others of the same age group.
intelligence test
A standardized assessment designed to measure a person’s cognitive abilities, including reasoning, problem-solving, memory, and verbal comprehension.
interleaving
A learning technique that involves mixing or alternating different types of practice or study tasks to enhance learning and retention.
intuition
The ability to understand or know something immediately without conscious reasoning or analysis.
Jean Piaget
A Swiss psychologist known for his influential theory of cognitive development, which describes the stages of intellectual growth in children.
L. L. Thurstone
An American psychologist known for his contributions to psychometrics and the development of factor analysis, as well as his critique of Charles Spearman’s theory of general intelligence.
Lewis Terman
An American psychologist known for his work on intelligence testing, particularly his adaptation of Alfred Binet’s intelligence test into the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales.
long-term memory
The relatively permanent storage of information, including facts, experiences, and skills, with potentially unlimited capacity and duration.
long-term potentiation (LTP)
A process of strengthening synaptic connections between neurons, believed to be a cellular mechanism underlying learning and memory.
longitudinal study
A research design that follows the same individuals or groups over an extended period to examine changes or development over time.
Massed Practice
A practice schedule in which studying continues for long periods, without interruption.
memory
The ability to retain and retrieve information over time, involving encoding, storage, and retrieval processes.
memory consolidation
The process of stabilizing and strengthening newly acquired memories over time through the reorganization of neural circuits.
mental age
A measure of intellectual development based on performance relative to average performance for a given chronological age, often used in intelligence testing.
mental set
A tendency to approach problems in a particular way, often based on past experiences or familiar strategies, which may impede problem-solving.
metacognition
Awareness and understanding of one’s own thought processes, including knowledge about when and how to use particular cognitive strategies.
Method of Loci
A mnemonic technique involving the visualization of familiar spatial environments to enhance the recall of information.
misinformation effect
The distortion of memory caused by exposure to misleading information after an event, leading to inaccuracies or false memories.
mneumonics
Memory aids or techniques used to improve encoding and retrieval of information, such as acronyms, rhymes, or visual imagery.
monocular cue
Depth cues that require only one eye to perceive depth and distance, such as relative size, interposition, and linear perspective.
mood-congruent memory
The tendency to recall information or experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood or emotional state.
Multistore Model of Memory
A model proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin, describing memory as consisting of three stores: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
neurogenesis
The formation of new neurons, particularly in the hippocampus, believed to play a role in learning, memory, and mood regulation.
normal curve
A bell-shaped curve representing the distribution of scores or measurements in a population, with the majority of scores clustered around the mean.
nudge
A subtle suggestion or reinforcement designed to influence people’s behavior or decisions without restricting their freedom of choice.
overconfidence
The tendency to overestimate one’s abilities, knowledge, or judgment, often leading to errors in decision-making or problem-solving.
parallel processing
The simultaneous processing of multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem, allowing for efficient cognitive functioning and perception.
Perception
The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events.
perceptual adaptation
The ability to adjust to changed sensory input, such as adapting to new eyeglasses or a reversed visual field.
perceptual constancy
The perceptual phenomenon where an object is perceived as maintaining its size, shape, color, or brightness despite changes in the sensory input.
perceptual set
A mental predisposition or expectation that influences perception, often based on prior experiences, motives, or context.
phi phenomenon
The illusion of movement created by the sequential flashing of lights in adjacent locations.
phonological loop
A component of working memory responsible for the temporary storage and rehearsal of verbal and auditory information.
predictive validity
The extent to which a test or measure accurately predicts future performance or outcomes.
Primacy Effect
The tendency to remember the first items in a series better than the middle items.
priming
The activation of particular associations in memory, often unconsciously, which can influence subsequent behavior or cognition.
proactive interference
The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.
Procedural Memory
A type of long-term memory involving how to perform different actions and skills.
Prospective Memory
Remembering to perform a planned action or recall a planned intention at some future point in time.
prototype
A mental image or representation of the typical features or essential characteristics of a category or concept.
Psychodynamic Theory
A view developed by Freud that emphasizes unconscious psychological processes and contends that childhood experiences are crucial in shaping adult personality.
psychometrics
The field of study concerned with the theory and techniques of psychological measurement, including the development and validation of psychological tests.
recall
The retrieval of previously learned information without the aid of external cues, often tested by free recall or cued recall tasks.
Recency Effect
The tendency to remember the most recently presented information best.
recognition
The identification of previously encountered information from among alternatives, often tested by multiple-choice or matching tasks.
reconsolidation
The process by which previously consolidated memories may be modified or altered when retrieved and then stored again.
Rehearsal
The conscious repetition of information to encode it for storage.
relearning
The process of learning something again more quickly or efficiently after it has been previously learned and forgotten.
reliability
The consistency or stability of a measurement or test over time or across different administrations.
representativeness heuristic
A mental shortcut where judgments or decisions are based on how well an individual or event matches a particular prototype or stereotype.
repression
A defense mechanism involving the unconscious exclusion or suppression of anxiety-provoking thoughts, memories, or impulses from conscious awareness.
retinal disparity
A binocular depth cue resulting from the slightly different images projected onto each retina, allowing for depth perception and stereoscopic vision.
retrieval
The process of accessing and bringing into consciousness previously stored information from memory.
Retrieval Cues
Stimuli that help you retrieve a certain memory.
retroactive interference
The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.
retrograde amnesia
Memory loss for events that occurred before a specific event, injury, or trauma.
Richard Atkinson
An American psychologist known for his work on memory, particularly the development of the modal model of memory with Richard Shiffrin.
Richard Shiffrin
An American psychologist known for his contributions to memory research, particularly the development of the modal model of memory with Richard Atkinson.
Robert Sternberg
An American psychologist known for his research on intelligence, creativity, and love, particularly his triarchic theory of intelligence.
savant syndrome
A rare condition in which individuals with developmental disorders such as autism display exceptional abilities or talents in specific areas, such as music, art, or mathematics.
schema
A cognitive framework or mental structure that organizes and interprets information about the world, guiding perception, memory, and problem-solving.
selective attention
The ability to focus awareness on a particular stimulus or aspect of the environment while ignoring others.
semantic encoding
The process of encoding the meaning or significance of information into memory, leading to better retention and recall.
Sensation
The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.
sensory memory
The brief and initial stage of memory processing where sensory information is briefly registered and preserved in its original sensory form.
serial position effect
The tendency to recall items from the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of a list more accurately than items from the middle.
shallow processing
A type of encoding that involves surface-level processing of information based on its physical characteristics, leading to poor retention.
short-term memory
The temporary storage system responsible for holding and manipulating information for brief periods, typically lasting seconds to minutes.
source amnesia
Forgetting the source of a memory, such as where or how the information was acquired, while retaining the memory itself.
spacing effect
The phenomenon where information is better remembered when it is distributed over time with intervals between study sessions, compared to massed practice or cramming.
Split-Half Reliability
The internal consistency of a test, assessed by comparing the results of two halves of the test.
standardization
The process of establishing uniform procedures for administering and scoring a test to ensure its reliability and validity.
Stanford-Binet
A widely used intelligence test originally developed by Lewis Terman at Stanford University, now in its fifth edition (SB-5).
State-Dependent Memory
The improved recall of information when the individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed.
stereotype threat
The phenomenon where individuals feel at risk of conforming to negative stereotypes about their social group, leading to decreased performance on tasks requiring intellectual ability.
Stereotypes
Oversimplified and generalized beliefs about a particular group of people.
Steven Pinker
A Canadian-American cognitive psychologist known for his research on language, cognition, and evolutionary psychology, as well as his popular science books.
storage
The retention of encoded information over time in memory.
stroboscopic movement
A perceptual phenomenon where a rapid series of slightly different images or frames create the illusion of continuous motion, as seen in motion pictures.
Sunk Cost Fallacy
The fallacy of making decisions based on past investments (time, money, resources) rather than on current and future benefits and costs.
Test-Retest Reliability
The consistency of a measure when the same test is administered to the same people at two different points in time.
testing effect
The finding that retrieval practice, or actively recalling information from memory, enhances long-term retention more effectively than simply re-studying the material.
Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon
The experience of knowing that we know something but being unable to access the information at that moment.
Top-Down Processing
An approach to perception that is guided by higher-level knowledge, experience, expectations, and motivations; involves the use of contextual information in pattern recognition.
validity
The extent to which a test or measure accurately assesses the construct or concept it is intended to measure.
visual cliff
An experimental apparatus used to test depth perception and visual-motor coordination in infants and animals, typically consisting of a glass-covered platform with a drop-off.
visuospatial sketchpad
A component of working memory responsible for the temporary storage and manipulation of visual and spatial information.
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
A widely used intelligence test designed for adults, assessing various cognitive abilities including verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed.
Wolfgang Kohler
A German psychologist known for his research on problem-solving and insight learning with chimpanzees on the island of Tenerife.
working memory
A limited-capacity system responsible for the temporary storage and manipulation of information needed for complex cognitive tasks, often referred to as the “mental workspace.”
