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AP Psych > Unit 2 - Cognition > Flashcards

Unit 2 - Cognition Flashcards

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1
Q

accomodation

A

In Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, the process of modifying existing cognitive structures in response to new information or experiences.

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2
Q

achievement test

A

A test designed to assess what a person has learned or accomplished in a particular area, such as academic subjects or job-related skills.

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3
Q

Alfred Binet

A

A French psychologist known for developing the first intelligence test, which aimed to measure children’s mental abilities and predict their academic success.

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4
Q

algorithm

A

A step-by-step procedure or formula for solving a problem, often involving repetitive operations.

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5
Q

Alzheimer’s Disease

A

A progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by memory loss, language deterioration, and impaired ability to mentally manipulate visual information.

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6
Q

Amnesia

A

A significant memory loss that is too extensive to be due to normal forgetting.

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7
Q

Amos Tversky

A

A cognitive psychologist known for his collaboration with Daniel Kahneman on decision-making and heuristics.

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8
Q

anterograde amnesia

A

A type of memory impairment characterized by the inability to form new memories after a specific event or injury, while memories from before the event remain intact.

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9
Q

aptitude test

A

A test designed to assess a person’s potential for learning or ability to perform in a particular area, such as intelligence tests or vocational aptitude tests.

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10
Q

assimilation

A

In Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, the process of incorporating new information or experiences into existing cognitive structures or schemas.

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11
Q

Attention

A

The cognitive process of selectively focusing on a specific aspect of information while ignoring other perceivable information.

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12
Q

Autobiographical Memory

A

A person’s memory for events and issues related to oneself.

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13
Q

autokinetic effect

A

A perceptual phenomenon where a stationary point of light appears to move in a dark environment due to small eye movements.

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14
Q

automatic processing

A

The unconscious processing of information that requires minimal attention and effort, such as routine tasks or well-learned skills.

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15
Q

availability heuristic

A

A mental shortcut where people make judgments based on the ease with which examples come to mind, often leading to overestimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory.

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16
Q

belief perserverance

A

The tendency to maintain one’s beliefs even in the face of contradictory evidence.

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17
Q

binocular cue

A

Depth cues that rely on information from both eyes to perceive depth and distance, such as retinal disparity and convergence.

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18
Q

Bottom-Up Processing

A

An approach to perception that starts with incoming stimuli and builds up to a final perception; involves analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information.

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19
Q

Carol Dweck

A

A psychologist known for her research on motivation and mindset, particularly the concepts of fixed mindset and growth mindset.

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20
Q

Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory

A

A contemporary theory of intelligence proposing that intelligence is composed of multiple distinct abilities, including fluid intelligence, crystallized intelligence, and various specific cognitive skills.

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21
Q

central executive

A

In Baddeley’s model of working memory, the component responsible for coordinating and controlling cognitive processes, including attention, planning, and decision-making.

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22
Q

Change Blindness

A

A phenomenon in visual perception where changes in a visual stimulus are not noticed by the observer.

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23
Q

Charles Spearman

A

A British psychologist known for his work on intelligence and the development of factor analysis, which identified a general factor of intelligence (g factor) underlying performance on cognitive tasks.

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24
Q

chunking

A

Organizing information into smaller, more manageable units or chunks to improve memory and processing efficiency.

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25
Q

Cocktail Party Effect

A

The phenomenon of being able to focus one’s auditory attention on a particular stimulus while filtering out a range of other stimuli, like hearing your name in a noisy room.

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26
Q

cognition

A

The mental processes involved in acquiring, processing, storing, and retrieving information, including perception, thinking, memory, and problem-solving.

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27
Q

cohort

A

A group of individuals who share a common characteristic or experience, such as age or generation, and are studied over time in longitudinal research.

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28
Q

color constancy

A

The perceptual phenomenon where the perceived color of an object remains relatively constant under different lighting conditions.

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29
Q

concept

A

A mental category or representation of objects, events, or ideas that share common features or characteristics.

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30
Q

confirmation bias

A

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one’s preexisting beliefs or hypotheses while ignoring or discounting contradictory evidence.

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31
Q

construct validity

A

The extent to which a test or measure accurately assesses the theoretical construct or concept it is intended to measure.

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32
Q

Constructive Memory

A

The process of constructing a memory by integrating new information with existing knowledge.

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33
Q

content validity

A

The extent to which a test or measure adequately samples the domain of interest and includes all relevant aspects of the construct being assessed.

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34
Q

Context-Dependent Memory

A

The improved recall of information when the context present at encoding and retrieval are the same.

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35
Q

convergence

A

A binocular depth cue where the eyes turn inward or converge to focus on nearby objects.

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36
Q

convergent thinking

A

A type of thinking characterized by narrowing down possible solutions to find a single correct answer, often associated with traditional problem-solving tasks.

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37
Q

creativity

A

The ability to generate novel and valuable ideas, solutions, or products that are meaningful or useful in a particular context.

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38
Q

cross-sectional study

A

A research design that compares different groups of individuals at a single point in time to examine age-related differences.

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39
Q

crystallized intelligence

A

Acquired knowledge and skills accumulated over a lifetime, often measured by vocabulary tests and general knowledge assessments.

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40
Q

Daniel Kahnman

A

A psychologist known for his work on decision-making, heuristics, and biases, particularly in collaboration with Amos Tversky.

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41
Q

David Weschler

A

An American psychologist known for developing intelligence tests, including the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC).

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42
Q

deep processing

A

A type of encoding that involves elaborative rehearsal and meaningful analysis of information, leading to better long-term retention.

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43
Q

deja vu

A

A feeling of familiarity or recognition of a current situation or experience as if it has been previously experienced, even though it is objectively new or unfamiliar.

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44
Q

depth perception

A

The ability to perceive the distance and three-dimensional spatial relationships of objects in the environment.

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45
Q

Distributed Practice

A

A practice schedule that involves intervals of rest between sessions of learning.

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46
Q

Divergent Thinking

A

A thought process used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions.

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47
Q

echoic memory

A

The sensory memory system responsible for the temporary storage and processing of auditory information, often referred to as “echoes” of sounds.

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48
Q

effortful memory

A

The intentional and conscious processing of information to encode, store, and retrieve it from memory, requiring cognitive effort and attention.

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49
Q

Elizabeth Loftus

A

A cognitive psychologist known for her research on eyewitness memory, misinformation effect, and false memories.

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50
Q

emotional intelligence

A

The ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions effectively in oneself and others.

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51
Q

Encoding

A

The process of transforming sensory input into a form that can be stored in memory.

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52
Q

Encoding Failure

A

The failure to process information into memory.

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53
Q

encoding specificity principle

A

The principle that retrieval of information is most effective when the conditions at encoding and retrieval are similar.

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54
Q

episodic memory

A

A type of long-term memory that involves the recollection of specific events, situations, and experiences with associated contextual details.

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55
Q

Eric Kandel

A

An American neuroscientist known for his research on memory, particularly synaptic plasticity and the cellular basis of learning and memory.

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56
Q

executive functions

A

Higher-level cognitive processes involved in goal setting, planning, problem-solving, decision-making, and self-regulation.

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57
Q

explicit memory

A

Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously recall and declare, also known as declarative memory.

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58
Q

factor analysis

A

A statistical technique used to identify and analyze the underlying structure of correlations between variables, often used to identify the factors underlying intelligence.

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59
Q

figure-ground

A

A gestalt principle of perception where we perceive objects as distinct from their background.

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60
Q

fixation

A

In problem-solving, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective, often due to mental set or functional fixedness.

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61
Q

fixed mindset

A

The belief that intelligence, abilities, and talents are fixed traits that cannot be changed or developed.

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62
Q

flashbulb memory

A

A vivid and detailed memory of a significant and emotionally charged event, often recalled with high confidence and accuracy.

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63
Q

fluid intelligence

A

The ability to think logically and solve problems in novel situations, independent of acquired knowledge and experience.

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64
Q

Flynn effect

A

The observed trend of increasing average intelligence test scores over time, named after psychologist James Flynn.

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65
Q

Forgetting Curve

A

A graph showing the decline of memory retention over time.

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66
Q

framing

A

The way information is presented or framed can influence decision-making and judgment by highlighting certain aspects of the information while downplaying others.

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67
Q

Francis Galton

A

A British scientist known for his contributions to the study of individual differences and intelligence testing, as well as his work in eugenics.

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68
Q

Functional Fixedness

A

A cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used.

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69
Q

Gambler’s Fallacy

A

The mistaken belief that if something happens more frequently than normal during a given period, it will happen less frequently in the future, or vice versa.

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70
Q

general intelligence

A

A hypothetical construct representing the general intelligence factor underlying performance on various cognitive tasks.

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71
Q

George A. Miller

A

An American psychologist known for his contributions to cognitive psychology, including research on memory, language processing, and information processing.

72
Q

gestalt

A

A German word meaning “form” or “pattern,” referring to the perceptual tendency to organize sensory information into meaningful wholes.

73
Q

grit

A

A personality trait characterized by passion, perseverance, and a strong motivation to achieve long-term goals.

74
Q

grouping

A

The perceptual tendency to organize elements into meaningful groups or categories based on similarity, proximity, continuity, or closure.

75
Q

growth mindset

A

The belief that intelligence, abilities, and talents can be developed through effort, practice, and learning.

76
Q

Hermann Ebbinghaus

A

A German psychologist known for his pioneering research on memory, particularly the forgetting curve and the spacing effect.

77
Q

heuristic

A

A mental shortcut or rule of thumb that simplifies problem-solving and decision-making, often leading to efficient but not always accurate judgments.

78
Q

hippocampus

A

A brain structure located in the limbic system, involved in memory consolidation, spatial navigation, and learning.

79
Q

Howard Gardner

A

An American psychologist known for his theory of multiple intelligences, which proposes that intelligence consists of distinct abilities across various domains.

80
Q

iconic memory

A

The sensory memory system responsible for the temporary storage and processing of visual information, often referred to as “iconic” images.

81
Q

implicit memory

A

Memory of skills, procedures, or associations that are expressed through performance or behavior without conscious awareness.

82
Q

inattentional blindness

A

The failure to notice unexpected objects or events when attention is focused elsewhere.

83
Q

Infantile Amnesia

A

The inability to retrieve memories from much before age 3.

84
Q

insight

A

The sudden realization or understanding of a problem’s solution that contrasts with more incremental problem-solving methods.

85
Q

intelligence

A

A mental ability consisting of the capacity to learn from experience, solve problems, adapt to new situations, and use knowledge to achieve goals.

86
Q

intelligence quotient

A

A numerical score derived from standardized intelligence tests, typically representing a person’s relative intelligence compared to others of the same age group.

87
Q

intelligence test

A

A standardized assessment designed to measure a person’s cognitive abilities, including reasoning, problem-solving, memory, and verbal comprehension.

88
Q

interleaving

A

A learning technique that involves mixing or alternating different types of practice or study tasks to enhance learning and retention.

89
Q

intuition

A

The ability to understand or know something immediately without conscious reasoning or analysis.

90
Q

Jean Piaget

A

A Swiss psychologist known for his influential theory of cognitive development, which describes the stages of intellectual growth in children.

91
Q

L. L. Thurstone

A

An American psychologist known for his contributions to psychometrics and the development of factor analysis, as well as his critique of Charles Spearman’s theory of general intelligence.

92
Q

Lewis Terman

A

An American psychologist known for his work on intelligence testing, particularly his adaptation of Alfred Binet’s intelligence test into the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales.

93
Q

long-term memory

A

The relatively permanent storage of information, including facts, experiences, and skills, with potentially unlimited capacity and duration.

94
Q

long-term potentiation (LTP)

A

A process of strengthening synaptic connections between neurons, believed to be a cellular mechanism underlying learning and memory.

95
Q

longitudinal study

A

A research design that follows the same individuals or groups over an extended period to examine changes or development over time.

96
Q

Massed Practice

A

A practice schedule in which studying continues for long periods, without interruption.

97
Q

memory

A

The ability to retain and retrieve information over time, involving encoding, storage, and retrieval processes.

98
Q

memory consolidation

A

The process of stabilizing and strengthening newly acquired memories over time through the reorganization of neural circuits.

99
Q

mental age

A

A measure of intellectual development based on performance relative to average performance for a given chronological age, often used in intelligence testing.

100
Q

mental set

A

A tendency to approach problems in a particular way, often based on past experiences or familiar strategies, which may impede problem-solving.

101
Q

metacognition

A

Awareness and understanding of one’s own thought processes, including knowledge about when and how to use particular cognitive strategies.

102
Q

Method of Loci

A

A mnemonic technique involving the visualization of familiar spatial environments to enhance the recall of information.

103
Q

misinformation effect

A

The distortion of memory caused by exposure to misleading information after an event, leading to inaccuracies or false memories.

104
Q

mneumonics

A

Memory aids or techniques used to improve encoding and retrieval of information, such as acronyms, rhymes, or visual imagery.

105
Q

monocular cue

A

Depth cues that require only one eye to perceive depth and distance, such as relative size, interposition, and linear perspective.

106
Q

mood-congruent memory

A

The tendency to recall information or experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood or emotional state.

107
Q

Multistore Model of Memory

A

A model proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin, describing memory as consisting of three stores: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

108
Q

neurogenesis

A

The formation of new neurons, particularly in the hippocampus, believed to play a role in learning, memory, and mood regulation.

109
Q

normal curve

A

A bell-shaped curve representing the distribution of scores or measurements in a population, with the majority of scores clustered around the mean.

110
Q

nudge

A

A subtle suggestion or reinforcement designed to influence people’s behavior or decisions without restricting their freedom of choice.

111
Q

overconfidence

A

The tendency to overestimate one’s abilities, knowledge, or judgment, often leading to errors in decision-making or problem-solving.

112
Q

parallel processing

A

The simultaneous processing of multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem, allowing for efficient cognitive functioning and perception.

113
Q

Perception

A

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events.

114
Q

perceptual adaptation

A

The ability to adjust to changed sensory input, such as adapting to new eyeglasses or a reversed visual field.

115
Q

perceptual constancy

A

The perceptual phenomenon where an object is perceived as maintaining its size, shape, color, or brightness despite changes in the sensory input.

116
Q

perceptual set

A

A mental predisposition or expectation that influences perception, often based on prior experiences, motives, or context.

117
Q

phi phenomenon

A

The illusion of movement created by the sequential flashing of lights in adjacent locations.

118
Q

phonological loop

A

A component of working memory responsible for the temporary storage and rehearsal of verbal and auditory information.

119
Q

predictive validity

A

The extent to which a test or measure accurately predicts future performance or outcomes.

120
Q

Primacy Effect

A

The tendency to remember the first items in a series better than the middle items.

121
Q

priming

A

The activation of particular associations in memory, often unconsciously, which can influence subsequent behavior or cognition.

122
Q

proactive interference

A

The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.

123
Q

Procedural Memory

A

A type of long-term memory involving how to perform different actions and skills.

124
Q

Prospective Memory

A

Remembering to perform a planned action or recall a planned intention at some future point in time.

125
Q

prototype

A

A mental image or representation of the typical features or essential characteristics of a category or concept.

126
Q

Psychodynamic Theory

A

A view developed by Freud that emphasizes unconscious psychological processes and contends that childhood experiences are crucial in shaping adult personality.

127
Q

psychometrics

A

The field of study concerned with the theory and techniques of psychological measurement, including the development and validation of psychological tests.

128
Q

recall

A

The retrieval of previously learned information without the aid of external cues, often tested by free recall or cued recall tasks.

129
Q

Recency Effect

A

The tendency to remember the most recently presented information best.

130
Q

recognition

A

The identification of previously encountered information from among alternatives, often tested by multiple-choice or matching tasks.

131
Q

reconsolidation

A

The process by which previously consolidated memories may be modified or altered when retrieved and then stored again.

132
Q

Rehearsal

A

The conscious repetition of information to encode it for storage.

133
Q

relearning

A

The process of learning something again more quickly or efficiently after it has been previously learned and forgotten.

134
Q

reliability

A

The consistency or stability of a measurement or test over time or across different administrations.

135
Q

representativeness heuristic

A

A mental shortcut where judgments or decisions are based on how well an individual or event matches a particular prototype or stereotype.

136
Q

repression

A

A defense mechanism involving the unconscious exclusion or suppression of anxiety-provoking thoughts, memories, or impulses from conscious awareness.

137
Q

retinal disparity

A

A binocular depth cue resulting from the slightly different images projected onto each retina, allowing for depth perception and stereoscopic vision.

138
Q

retrieval

A

The process of accessing and bringing into consciousness previously stored information from memory.

139
Q

Retrieval Cues

A

Stimuli that help you retrieve a certain memory.

140
Q

retroactive interference

A

The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.

141
Q

retrograde amnesia

A

Memory loss for events that occurred before a specific event, injury, or trauma.

142
Q

Richard Atkinson

A

An American psychologist known for his work on memory, particularly the development of the modal model of memory with Richard Shiffrin.

143
Q

Richard Shiffrin

A

An American psychologist known for his contributions to memory research, particularly the development of the modal model of memory with Richard Atkinson.

144
Q

Robert Sternberg

A

An American psychologist known for his research on intelligence, creativity, and love, particularly his triarchic theory of intelligence.

145
Q

savant syndrome

A

A rare condition in which individuals with developmental disorders such as autism display exceptional abilities or talents in specific areas, such as music, art, or mathematics.

146
Q

schema

A

A cognitive framework or mental structure that organizes and interprets information about the world, guiding perception, memory, and problem-solving.

147
Q

selective attention

A

The ability to focus awareness on a particular stimulus or aspect of the environment while ignoring others.

148
Q

semantic encoding

A

The process of encoding the meaning or significance of information into memory, leading to better retention and recall.

149
Q

Sensation

A

The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.

150
Q

sensory memory

A

The brief and initial stage of memory processing where sensory information is briefly registered and preserved in its original sensory form.

151
Q

serial position effect

A

The tendency to recall items from the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of a list more accurately than items from the middle.

152
Q

shallow processing

A

A type of encoding that involves surface-level processing of information based on its physical characteristics, leading to poor retention.

153
Q

short-term memory

A

The temporary storage system responsible for holding and manipulating information for brief periods, typically lasting seconds to minutes.

154
Q

source amnesia

A

Forgetting the source of a memory, such as where or how the information was acquired, while retaining the memory itself.

155
Q

spacing effect

A

The phenomenon where information is better remembered when it is distributed over time with intervals between study sessions, compared to massed practice or cramming.

156
Q

Split-Half Reliability

A

The internal consistency of a test, assessed by comparing the results of two halves of the test.

157
Q

standardization

A

The process of establishing uniform procedures for administering and scoring a test to ensure its reliability and validity.

158
Q

Stanford-Binet

A

A widely used intelligence test originally developed by Lewis Terman at Stanford University, now in its fifth edition (SB-5).

159
Q

State-Dependent Memory

A

The improved recall of information when the individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed.

160
Q

stereotype threat

A

The phenomenon where individuals feel at risk of conforming to negative stereotypes about their social group, leading to decreased performance on tasks requiring intellectual ability.

161
Q

Stereotypes

A

Oversimplified and generalized beliefs about a particular group of people.

162
Q

Steven Pinker

A

A Canadian-American cognitive psychologist known for his research on language, cognition, and evolutionary psychology, as well as his popular science books.

163
Q

storage

A

The retention of encoded information over time in memory.

164
Q

stroboscopic movement

A

A perceptual phenomenon where a rapid series of slightly different images or frames create the illusion of continuous motion, as seen in motion pictures.

165
Q

Sunk Cost Fallacy

A

The fallacy of making decisions based on past investments (time, money, resources) rather than on current and future benefits and costs.

166
Q

Test-Retest Reliability

A

The consistency of a measure when the same test is administered to the same people at two different points in time.

167
Q

testing effect

A

The finding that retrieval practice, or actively recalling information from memory, enhances long-term retention more effectively than simply re-studying the material.

168
Q

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon

A

The experience of knowing that we know something but being unable to access the information at that moment.

169
Q

Top-Down Processing

A

An approach to perception that is guided by higher-level knowledge, experience, expectations, and motivations; involves the use of contextual information in pattern recognition.

170
Q

validity

A

The extent to which a test or measure accurately assesses the construct or concept it is intended to measure.

171
Q

visual cliff

A

An experimental apparatus used to test depth perception and visual-motor coordination in infants and animals, typically consisting of a glass-covered platform with a drop-off.

172
Q

visuospatial sketchpad

A

A component of working memory responsible for the temporary storage and manipulation of visual and spatial information.

173
Q

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

A

A widely used intelligence test designed for adults, assessing various cognitive abilities including verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed.

174
Q

Wolfgang Kohler

A

A German psychologist known for his research on problem-solving and insight learning with chimpanzees on the island of Tenerife.

175
Q

working memory

A

A limited-capacity system responsible for the temporary storage and manipulation of information needed for complex cognitive tasks, often referred to as the “mental workspace.”

AP Psych (7 decks)

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