unit 4 learning

Question 1

learning

Answer 1

long-lasting change in behavior resulting from experience

Question 2

classical conditioning

Answer 2

Ivan Pavlov) dogs learned to pair sounds w/ food
- deduced basic principle of classical conditioning: ppl & animals can learn to associate neutral stimuli (e.g. sound) w/ stimuli that produces reflexive, involuntary responses (e.g. food) and will learn to respond similarly to new stimulus as they did to old one (e.g. salivate)

Question 3

unconditioned stimulus (US / UCS) - classical conditioning

Answer 3

original stimulus that elicits a natural, reflexive response (e.g. food)

Question 4

unconditioned response (UR / UCR) - classical conditioning

Answer 4

natural, involuntary response to unconditioned stimulus (e.g. salivation)

Question 5

conditioned stimulus (CS) - classical conditioning

Answer 5

when associating unconditioned stimulus w/ neutral stimulus (e.g. sound) together -> conditioned response (CR) is no longer neutral stimulus but rather conditioned stimulus (CS) when bell elicits salvation

Question 6

acquisition

Answer 6

when learning takes place, animals respond to CS w/o presence of US
- animals acquired a new behavior
- repeated pairings of CS & US -> stronger CR
- most effective: present CS first and introduce US while CS is still evident [delayed conditioning]

Question 7

less effective methods of learning than delayed conditioning

Answer 7

• trace conditioning: presence of CS, followed by short break, followed by presence of UC
• simultaneous conditioning: CS & US presented at the same time
• backward conditioning: US presented first & followed by CS

Question 8

extinction

Answer 8

process of unlearning a behavior
- when CS no longer elicits CR
- achieved by repeatedly presenting CS w/o US -> breaks association

Question 9

spontaneous recoery

Answer 9

after CR has been extinguished & no further training, response briefly reappears upon presentation of CS

Question 10

generalization

Answer 10

animals conditioned to a certain stimulus also respond to similar stimuli (response smaller in magnitude)

Question 11

discrimination

Answer 11

subjects trained to discriminate (distinguish) btwn bells -> only salivate to specific bell

Question 12

classical conditioning w/ humans - little Albert

Answer 12

John B. Watson & Rosalie Rayner: conditioned little Albert to fear white rat
- originally liked white rat but repeated pairing w/ loud noise -> cry when he saw the rat
- US: loud noise-> elicits involuntary, natural response of fear
- CS: rat
- CR: crying in response to rat alone
- generalized: crying to other white, fluffy things

Question 13

aversive conditioning

Answer 13

conditioned to have negative response

Question 14

second-order / higher-order conditioning

Answer 14

once CS elicits CR, use the CS as a US in order to condition a response to a new stimulus
e.g. training) presence of bell (CS) + light (new!) = salvation -> acquisition) presence of light = salvation

Question 15

learned taste aversions

Answer 15

example of animals & humans being biologically prepared to make certain conditions more easily than others
- e.g. eating food -> sick // avoiding that food
- result in powerful avoidance responses on basis of single pairing
- adaptive (helpful for survival) bc helps avoid dangerous things in future
- CS (food) must be salient (outstanding) in order for us to learn to avoid it

Question 16

John Garcia & Robert Koelling - Garcia effect

Answer 16

experiment on how rats learned to make certain associations more than others
- rats learned to associate noise w/shock & unusual tasting water w/ nausea BUT no connection btwn noise & nausia // water & shock

Question 17

operant conditioning

Answer 17

learning based on association of consequences w/ one’s behaviors

Question 18

law of effect - Edward Thorndike

Answer 18

if consequences of behavior are pleasant, stimulus-response (S-R) connection will be strengthened & likelihood of behavior will increase (instrumental 수단이 되는 learning)

Question 19

Skinner box - reinforcement

Answer 19

B.F. Skinner
- way to deliver food to an animal & lever to press/disk to peck in order to get the food
- reinforcer: makes behavior more likely to occur (food)
- reinforcement: defined by its consequences (process of giving food)
- positive reinforcement: addition of smth pleasant
- negative reinforcement: removal of smth unpleasant (e.g. loud noise terminates when pressing lever) -> results in escape learning: allows one to terminate aversive stimulus
- vs. avoidance learning: allows one to avoid unpleasant stimulus altogether

Question 20

punishment

Answer 20

affecting behavior by using unpleasant consequences, makes behavior less likely
- positive punishment: addition of smth unpleasant
- negative punishment (omission training): removal of smth pleasant

Question 21

shaping

Answer 21

reinforces steps used to reach the desired behavior
- rewards approximations of desired behavior -> increases likelihood of desired behavior

Question 22

chaining

Answer 22

animals taught to perform a number of responses successively to get a reward

Question 23

primary reinforcer

Answer 23

rewarding

Question 24

secondary reinforcer

Answer 24

things we’ve learned to value
- generalized reinforcer: can be traded for virtually anything (special, e.g. money) -> practical application: token economy where every time someone perform desired behavior, they’re given token -> allowed to train token for any variety of reinforcers

Question 25

Premack principle

Answer 25

reinforcing properties of smth depend on situation
- whichever of two activities preferred can be used to reinforce not-preferred activity

Question 26

continuous reinforcement

Answer 26

rewarding behavior each time
- once behavior is learned -> higher response rates can be obtained using certain partial-reinforcement effects

Question 27

partial-reinforcement effect

Answer 27

behaviors more resistance to extinction if animal has not been reinforced continuously

Question 28

fixed-ratio (FR) schedule

Answer 28

provides reinforcement after set number of responses

Question 29

variable-ratio (VR) schedule

Answer 29

provides reinforcement based on number of bar presses but that number varies (e.g. VR-5 -> average presses needed will be five)

Question 30

fixed-interval (FI) schedule

Answer 30

certain amount of time elapse before bar press will result in reward

Question 31

variable-interval (VI) schedule

Answer 31

varies amount of time required to elapse before a response will result in reinforcement

Question 32

ratio schedules

Answer 32

promote higher rates of responding than interval rates

Question 33

instinctive drift

Answer 33

tendency for animals to forgo (없이 지내다) rewards to pursue their typical patterns of behavior

Question 34

contiguity model

Answer 34

Pavlovian model of classic conditioning bc postulates (가정하다) that more times two things paired, greater learning that will take place

Question 35

Contiguity (togetherness)

Answer 35

determines strength of response

Question 36

Rescorla’s contingency model

Answer 36

presence of one event predicts present of other
- Rocco: food contingent upon bell
- Sparky: not clear relationship btwn CS & US

Question 37

observational learning (modeling)

Answer 37

studied by Albert Bandura
- species-specific: only occurs btwn members of same species
- observation & imitation: mental representation of observed behavior must exist in order to enable person/animal to imitate it

Question 38

latent learning

Answer 38

Edward Tolman
- learning that becomes obvious only once a reinforcement is given for demonstrating it

Question 39

abstract learning

Answer 39

understanding concepts rather than learning simply to press a bar to secure a reward
- not simpling forming S-R connections

Question 40

insight learning

Answer 40

Wolfgang Kohler
- occurs when one suddenly realizes how to solve a problem
- due to insight rather than gradual strengthning of S-R connections