unit 2 biological bases of behavior Flashcards
1
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neuroanatomy
A
study of parts & functions of neurons
2
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neurons
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individual nerve cells
- make up entire nervous system
3
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dendrites
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stretch out from cell body, grow to make synaptic connections w/ other neurons
4
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cell body (soma)
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contains nucleus & other parts of cell neded to sustain its life
5
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axon
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wirelike structure ending in terminal buttons that extends from cell body
6
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myelin shealth
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fatty covering around axon that spreads neural impulses
7
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terminal buttons
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branched end of axon that contains neurotransmitters
8
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neurotransmitters
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chemicals contained in terminal buttons that enable neurons to communicate
- fit into receptor sites on dendrites of neurons
9
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synapse
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space btwn terminal buttons of one neuron & dendrites of next neuron
10
Q
process of neuron firing
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neuron in resting state: slightly negative charge (negative ions inside), selectively permeable membrane
1) terminal buttons of neuron A stimulated -> releases neurotransmitters into synapse
2) neurotransmitters fit into receptor site on dendrites of neuron B
3) when enough neurotransmitters are received (Reaches threshold) -> cell membrane of neuron B becomes permeable & positive ions rush into cell, positive charge
4) action potential: change in charge spreads down length of neuron B & electric message fires
5) charge reaches terminal buttons of neuron B -> buttons release their neurotransmitters into synapse
11
Q
all-or-none principle
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neuron either fires completely or doesn’t fire
- if dendrite receives enough neurotransmitters to push neurons past its threshold, neuron will fire completely every time
12
Q
neuron firing is electrochemical process
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- electricity travels within the cell (dendrite->terminal button, doesn’t jump between neurons!!)
- chemicals (neurotransmitters) travel between cells in synapse
13
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excitatory neurotransmitter
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excites next neuron into firing
14
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inhibitory neurotransmitter
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inhibits next cell from firing
15
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acetylcholine
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function: motor movement
problem when lack: Alzheimer’s disease
16
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dopamine
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function: motor movement & alertness
problem when lack: Parkinson’s disease
when excess: schizophrenia
17
Q
endorphins
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function: pain control
problems: involved in addiction
18
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serotonin
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function: mood control
problems when lack: clinical depression
19
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GABA
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important inhibitory neurotransmitter
problem: seizures, sleep problems
20
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glutamate
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excitatory neurotransmitter involved in memory
problem: migraines, seizures
21
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norepinephrine
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alertness, arousal
- problem: depression
22
Q
sensory neurons (afferent neurons)
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take information from senses to brain
- part of nervous system
23
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interneurons
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when information reaches brain/spinal cord -> take messages & send them elsewhere in brain or on to efferent neurons
24
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motor neurons (efferent neurons)
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take information from brain to rest of body
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central nervous system (CNS)
brain & spinal cord
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spinal cord
bundle of nerves that run through center of spine
- transmits information from rest of body to brain
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peripheral nervous system (PNS)
all the neurons not covered in bone
- somatic nervous system & autonomic nervous system
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somatic nervous system
controls voluntary muscle movements
- motor cortex of brain sends impulses -> somatic nervous system controls muscles that allow us to move
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autonomic nervous system
- controls automatic functions (e.g. heart, lungs)
- controls response to stress: fight or flight response
- sympathetic nervous system & parasympathetic nervous system
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sympathetic nervous system
mobilizes body to respond to stress
- carries messages to control systems of organs, glands & muscles that direct body's response to stress
- alert system: accelerates some functions (heart rate, blood pressure, respiration) BUT conserves energy needed for quick response by slowing down other functions (e.g. digestion)
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parasympathetic nervous system
carries messages to stress response system that causes body to slow down "after" stress response
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overall structure of nervous system
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reflex
certain reactions that occur the moment sensory impulses reach the spinal cord
- in response to intense heat/cold
- adaptive value: passed on to offspring
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accidents - study method for brain
phineas gage - front part of brain damaged
- limbic system separated from frontal lobes
- doctor documented how his personality & behavior changed after accident
-> he became more emotional & impulsive, showing that damaged brain was involved in emotional control
35
lesions - study method of brain
removal/destruction of parts of brain (never done purely for experimental purposes)
- when doctor decides that best treatment is surgery that destroys/disables part of brain
- doctor monitor patient's change in behavior -> try to infer function of damaged brain part
36
frontal lobotomy (lesion)
surgery used to control mentally ill patients
- lesioning part of frontal lobe makes patients calm & relieve serious symptoms
37
electroencephalogram (EEG) - brain study method
detects brain waves -> examines different wave types that brain produces during different stages of consciousness & uses this info to generalize about brain function
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computerized axial tomography (CAT/CT) - brain study method
uses serval x-ray cameras that rotate around brain & combine all pictures into detailed 3-dimensional pic of brain structure
- only shows structure of brain, NOT functions/activity of diff brain parts
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magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) - brain study method
give pictures of brain, NOT function (similar to CAT scan but w/ greater details)
- uses magnetic fields to measure density & location of brain material (doesnt use x-ray!!)
-> patient not exposed to carcinogenic radiation
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functional MRI (fMRI) - brain study method
shows details of brain structure w/ info about blood flow in brain (MRI + PET combined)
- ties brain structure to brain activity during cognitive tasks
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overall brain structure
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hindbrain
top of spinal cord
- controls basic biological functions that keep us alive
- medulla, pons & cerebellum
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medulla - hindbrain
located above spinal cord
- controls blood pressure, heart rate & breathing
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pons - hindbrain
located above medulla & toward the front
- involved in control of facial expressions
- connects hindbrain w/ midbrain & forebrain
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cerebellum - hindbrain
located on bottom rear of brain
- coordinates some habitual muscle movements (e.g. tracking object w/ eyes)
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midbrain
located between hindbrain & forebrain
- coordinates simple movements w/ sensory info
- integrates sensory info & muscle movements
- reticular formation: netlike connection of cells throughout midbrain that controls general body arousal & ability to focus our attention (doesnt work -> deep coma)
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forebrain
controls what we think of as thought & reason
- bigger size in human
- thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus, cerebral cortex
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thalamus - forebrain
located on top of brainstem
- receives sensory signals coming up spinal cord & sends them to appropriate areas in forebrain
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hypothalamus - forebrain
small structure next to thalamus
- controls several metabolic functions: body temp, sexual arousal (libido), hunger, thirst, endocrine system
- controls biological rhythms
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amygdala - forebrain
structures near the end of each hippocampal arm
- vital to experiences of emotion
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hippocampus - forebrain
two arms surrounding amygdala
- vital to memory system
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amygdala & hippocampus - forebrain
processes memories then send them to other locations in cerebral cortex for permanent storage
- damage -> unable to retain (유지) new info
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cerebral cortex - forebrain
grey wrinkled surface of brain (to increase S.A.)
- thin layer of densely packed neurons
- covers rest of brain
- when born) neurons not connected
- as develop & learn) dendrites of neurons in cerebral cortex grow & connect w/ other neurons to form complex neural web
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limbic system - forebrain
thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus grouped all together
- all deal w/ aspects of emotions & memory
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hemisphere - brain
cerebral cortex is divided into 2 hemispheres (contralateral control)
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left hemisphere
gets sensory messages & controls motor function of right half of body
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right hemisphere
gets sensory messages & controls motor function of left half of body
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brain lateralization / hemispheric specialization
specialization of function in each hemisphere
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brain hemisphere research
done by examining split-brain patients whose corpus callosum (nerve bundle that connects two hemispheres) has been cut to treat epilepsy
- operation pioneered by Roger Sperry & Michael Gazzaniga
- patients can't orally report info only presented to right hemisphere -> spoken language centers of brain are usually located in left hemisphere
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areas of cerebral cortex
8 diff lobes, four on each hemisphere: frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital
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association area
any area of cerebral cortex that's not associated w/ receiving sensory info or controling muscle movements
- thought to be responsible for complex & sophisticated thoughts (judgement, humor etc)
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frontal lobe
large areas of cerebral cortex located @ top front part of brain behind eyes
- contain prefrontal cortex & motor cortex
- most ppl) frontal lobe in left hemisphere contains one of two special areas responsible for language processing - broca's area
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prefrontal cortex - frontal lobe
front of frontal lobe
- critical role in directing thought processes
- act as brain's central executive
- believed to be important in predicting consequences, pursuing goals, maintaining emotional control & engaging in abstract thought
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broca's area - frontal lobe
responsible for controlling muscles involved in producing speech
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motor cortex - frontal lobe
thin vertical strip @ back of frontal lobe
- sends signals to our muscles -> controls voluntary movements
- top part of body: controlled by neurons @ bottom of motor cortex, progressing down body as you go up the cortex
-> top of motor cortex: controls feet & toes
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parietal lobe
located behind frontal lobe, top of brain
- contain sensory cortex
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sensory cortex (somato-sensory cortex) - parietal lobe
located right behind motor cortex
- thin vertical strip that receives incoming touch sensations from body
- organized similarly to motor cortex: top part of sensory cortex receives sensations from bottom of body
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occipital lobes
at very back of brain
- interprets messages from eyes in visual cortex
- impulses from retinas in eyes are sent to visual cortex to be interpreted ->
impulses from right half of each retina: processed in visual cortex in right occipital lobe ...
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temporal lobe
processes sound sensed by ears
- contains auditory cortex & wernicke's area
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auditory cortex - temporal lobe
interprets soundwaves that are processed by ears -> turned into neural impulses
- not lateralized like visual cortex: sound received by left ear is processed on auditory cortices in BOTH hemispheres
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wernicke's area - temporal lobe
2nd language area) interprets both written & spoken speech
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brain plasticity
parts of brain can adapt themselves to perform other functions if needed
- cerebral cortex is made up of complex neural networks connected by dendrites that grow to make new connections
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endocrine system
system of glands that secrete hormones
- controlled in brain by hypothalamus
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adrenal glands
produces adrenaline: signals rest of body to prepare for fight or flight (in connection w/ autonomic nervous system that controls involuntary responses)
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ovaries & tests
produces sex hormones: male-testosterone, female-estrogen
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genetics
affects human thought & behavior
- every human cell contains 46 chromosomes in 23 pairs
77
DNA
genetic material that makes up chromosome
- certain DNA segments control production of specific proteins that control human traits
- genes: these discrete segments, can be dominant/recessive
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monozygotic twins (identical)
share all same genetic material -> used to examine influence of genes on human traits
- Bouchard) both environment & genetics have influence (twins living together/living apart)
-> criticism: same effective psychological environment created bc physical similarity, correlation not due to genetic influence
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sex - chromosome
determined by 23rd pair of chromosomes
- male: XY chromosomes
- female: XX chromosomes
80
Turner's syndrome - chromosomal abnormality
born w/ only single X chromosome usually occupied 23rd pair
- physical characteristics: shortness, webbed necks, diff in physical sexual development
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Klinefelter's syndrome - chromosomal abnormality
extra X chromosome -> XXY pattern
- minimal sexual development & extreme introversion
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down syndrome - chromosomal abnormality
born with extra chromosome on 21st pair
- physical traits: rounded face, shorter fingers & toes, slanted eye set apart, some intellectual disability
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consciousness
level of awareness about ourselves & environment
William James)
- dualism: humans consist of thought & matter, thought is eternal
- monism: everything is same substance, thought stops existing when body dies
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mere exposure effect - consciousness
we prefer stimuli we've seen before over new stimuli, even if we don't consciously remember seeing the old stimuli
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priming - consciousness
participants respond more quickly/accurately to questions they've seen before, even if they don't remember seeing them
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blind sight - consciousness
some ppl who report blind can accurately describe path of moving object / accurately grasp objects they say they can't see
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conscious level - levels of consciousness
information about urself & ur environemnt ur currently aware of
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nonconscious level - levels of consciousness
body processes controlled by ur mind that ur not aware of (heartbeat, respiration etc)
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preconscious level - levels of consciousness
info about urself/ur env that ur not currently thinking about but you could be (e.g. remembering fav childhood toy: bring that preconscious memory into conscious level)
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subconscious level - levels of consciousness
info that ur not consciously aware of BUT we know MUST exist due to behavior
- behaviors in priming & mere exposure effect: some info is accessible to subconsc level but not to consc level
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unconscious level - levels of consciousness
psychoanalytical psychologists) some events unacceptable to consc mind -> repressed into unconsc mind
92
sleep
one of states of consciousness
93
circadian rhythm
metabolic & thought process pattern during 24h day
- sleep cycle is part of it
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sleep cycle
EEG is used to record
95
sleep onset - sleep cycle
period when we're falling asleeep
- stage btwn wake & sleep -> mild hallucinations
- brain produces alpha waves
96
awake -> stages 1&2 - sleep cycle
brain produces theta waves which progressively get slower & higher amplitude as we fall asleep
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stage 2 - sleep cycle
EEG starts to show sleep spindles (=short bursts of rapid brain waves)
98
sage 3&4 - sleep cycle
delta sleep (slow-wave)
- delta waves exist, slower (lower frequency) the wave, deeper the sleep
- important in replenishing body's chemical supplies, releasing growth hormones in children & fortifying our immune system
- after certain time, go back to stage 1
99
REM - sleep cycle
when we reach from stage 4->stage 1
- paradoxical sleep since brain waves appear as active & intense as they do when we're awake
- dreams & memory
- REM rebound: longer periods of REM next time we sleep when deprived
- more stress during day -> longer REM
- cycle approx. 90 min about 4-7 times (closer to morning - more time in stages 1,2&REM)
- as we age: less time in REM sleep
100
insomnia - sleep disorder
problem going to sleep / staying asleep
- usually treated w/ changes in behavior
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narcolepsy - sleep disorder
periods of intense sleepiness & fall asleep @ unpredictable times
- may fall into REM sleep no matter what they were doing
- treated w/ medicine & changing sleep patterns
102
sleep apnea - sleep disorder
stop breathing for short periods during sleep -> may wake up slightly & gasp for air
- interferes deep sleep -> tiredness, interferes memory
- don't remember waking up -> goes undiagnosed
- overweight men = higher risk
- treated w/ respiration machine - provides air
103
night terror - sleep disorder
sit up middle of night, scream, move around room
-usually children
- may be related to somnambulism(sleepwalking) -> both during first hours in stage 4 sleep
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dreams
series of storylike images experienced while sleeping
- research relies heavily on self-reports
- ppl awakened during/shortly after REM episode report they were dreaming
105
lucid dream
aware that we're dreaming, can control storyline
106
Sigmund Freud - dream
interpreting dream as a method to uncover repressed info in unconscious mind
- manifest content: literal content of dream
- latent content: unconscious meaning of manifest content
- ego protects use from material in unconscious mind (protected sleep) by presenting repressed desires using symbols
107
activation-synthesis theory of dreaming
dreams are biological phenomena
- dream is a story made up by literary part of mind caused by intense brain activity during REM -> no more than reflex
108
information-processing theory of dreaming
stress during day -> increase in number & intensity of dreams
- brain deals w/ stress during REM -> function of REM is to integrate info processed during day into memories
- babies need more REM sleep bc they process so much new info everyday
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psychoactive drugs
chemicals that change chemistry of brain & induce altered state of consciousness
- molecules of psychoactive drug are small enough to pass blood-brain barrier that protects brain from harmful chemicals
- mimic/block neurotransmitters (agonist/antagonist)
110
agonist
drugs that mimic neurotransmitters
- fit into receptor sites & function as that neurotransmitter normally would
111
antagonist
drugs that block neurotransmitters
- fit into receptor sites & block neurotransmitters from using the site
112
psychoactive drugs that aren't agonist/antagonist
prevent neurotransmitter from being reabsorbed back to neuron -> creates abundance of that neurotransmitter in synapse
113
tolerance - drug
physiological change that produces need for more of same drug to achieve same effect
- caused by change in natural level of neurotransmitter
- eventually causes withdrawal
- psychologically & physically dependent to the drug
114
stimulants
arouses autonomic nervous system, euphoria
- tolerance & withdrawal
- caffeine, cocaine, nicotine
115
depressants
slows down autonomic nervous system, euphoria
- tolerance & withdrawal
- alcohol, tranquilizers
116
hallucinogens
causes sensory distortions, change in perception
- lingering, reverse tolerance: 2nd dose may be less than 1st but have same/greater effect
- LSD, marijuana, mushrooms
117
opiates
relieves pain & elevates mood
- antagonist for endorphin
- euphoria associated w/ elevated endorphin levels
- heroine, morphine, codeine
