UNIT 4: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Flashcards
Is the pattern of change that begins at conception and continues through the life span.
Development
BASIC TERMS
The biological limits to life’s length, determined by species-specific hereditary factors.
Life span
BASIC TERMS
The perspective that development is lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, multidisciplinary, and contextual.
Life-span perspective
BASIC TERMS
Involves growth, maintenance, and regulation; and is constructed through biological, sociocultural, and individual factors working together.
Life-span perspective
BASIC TERMS
The average length of time that a given age-based cohort is expected to live.
Life expectancy
BASIC TERMS
The term used by sociologists to refer to the normal, expected set of events that take place over an individual’s life.
Life course
THEORIES OF LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT
Suggests that a person’s problems were the result of his experiences early in life.
Sigmund Freuds’ Theory
(Psychosexual Theory of Development)
THEORIES OF LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT
When children grow up, their focus of pleasure and sexual impulses shifts from the mouth to the anus and eventually to the genitals.
Sigmund Freuds’ Theory
(Psychosexual Theory of Development)
PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT
Infant’s pleasure centers on the mouth
Answer with age
Oral Stage (Birth - 1½ years old)
PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT
Child’s pleasure focuses on the anus
Answer with age
Anal Stage (1½ - 3 years old)
PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT
Child’s pleasure focuses on the genitals
Answer with age
Phallic Stage (3 - 6 years old)
PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT
Child represses sexual interest and develops social and intellectual skills
Answer with age
Latency Stage (6 years old - Puberty)
PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT
A time of sexual reawakening source of sexual pleasure becomes someone outside the family.
Answer with age
Genital Stage (Puberty onward)
THEORIES OF LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT
The eight stages of human development wherein each stage consists of a unique developmental task that confronts individuals with a crisis that must be resolved.
Erik Erikson’s Theory
(Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development)
ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
Children must establish a sense of being able to rely on the environment (and caregivers) to take care of them
Answer with Age
Basic Trust vs. Basic Mistrust (0 –18 months old)
ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
Children learn ways to be able to act independently from their parents without feeling afraid they will venture too far off on their own.
Answer with Age
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (18 months –3 years old)
ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
This is the play stage in which children learn to express themselves creatively without fear they will engage in activities that will get them in trouble.
Answer with Age
Initiative vs. Guilt (3 –5 years old)
ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
During this stage, children learn to identify with the world of work and develop a work ethic.
Answer with Age
Industry vs. Inferiority (5 –12 years old)
ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
Adolescents establish a sense of who they are and develop commitments in the areas of work and values.
Answer with Age
Identity vs. Identity Diffusion (12 –21 years old)
ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
Young adults are able to experience psychologically close relationships with others and develop long-term commitments.
Answer with Age
Intimacy vs. Isolation (21 –40 years old)
ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
Middle-age adults feel a sense of caring and concern for the younger generation and determine what their legacy will be after they are gone.
Answer with Age
Generativity vs. Stagnation (40–65 years old)
ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
In later adulthood, individuals come to grips with mortality and with achieving a sense of acceptance about the life they have lived.
Answer with Age
Ego Integrity vs. Despair (65 years till death)
THEORIES OF LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT
Believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting much like little scientists as they perform experiments, make observations, and learn about the world.
Jean Piaget’s Theory
(Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development)
THEORIES OF LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT
Describes the cognitive development of children. Cognitive development involves changes in cognitive process and abilities.
Jean Piaget’s Theory
(Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development)
THEORIES OF LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT
Early cognitive development involves processes based upon actions and later progresses to changes in mental operations.
Jean Piaget’s Theory
(Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development)
PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
The infant constructs an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical actions.
Answer with Age
Sensorimotor Stage (Birth - 2 years old)
PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
An infant progresses from reflexive, instinctual action at birth to the beginning of symbolic thought toward the end of the stage.
Answer with Age
Sensorimotor Stage (Birth - 2 years old)
PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
The child begins to represent the world with words and images.
Answer with Age
Preoperational Stage (2 - 7 years old)
PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Words and images reflect increases symbolic thinking and go beyond the connection of sensory information and physical action
Answer with Age
Preoperational Stage (2 - 7 years old)
PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
The child can now reason logically about concrete events and classify objects into different sets.
Answer with Age
Concrete Operational Stage (7 - 11 years old)
PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
The adolescent reason in more abstract, idealistic and logical ways.
Answer with Age
Formal Operational Stage (11 years old - Adulthood)
THEORIES OF LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT
Emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development.
Vygotsky’s Theory
(Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Cognitive Theory)
VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL COGNITIVE THEORY
Is the area of knowledge just beyond a child’s abilities.
Zone of proximal development (ZPD)
VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL COGNITIVE THEORY
Children learn best when they encounter information at this level and can interact with a more skilled person.
Zone of proximal development (ZPD)
VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL COGNITIVE THEORY
Is the kind of support adults and teachers present when they provide progressively more difficult problems or ask children to explain their reasoning for learning (within the ZPD) that enables children to work independently but with help so they can solve problems and develop their cognitive abilities more generally.
Scaffolding
Children become better at solving problems because they develop more conscious awareness of their cognitive activities and can use this awareness to select or change strategies, including better knowledge about how to direct their attention and effectively use their short-term/working memory and long-term memory.
Metacognition
Children do not experience discrete changes or move from one stage to another.
Development is continuous
THEORIES OF LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT
Expanded on Piaget’s cognitive development theory by proposing that children’s cognitive abilities influence the growth of their ability to make moral judgments.
Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory
(Stages of Moral Development)
STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Right and wrong are thought of in terms of their immediate effects of pleasure versus pain. No moral principles are invoked.
Answer with Age
Preconventional (Young children/Birth - 9 years old)
STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
- People at this stage see rules as fixed and absolute.
- Obeying the rules is important because it is a way to avoid punishment.
Specific Stage
Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment
STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
- Actions are seen in terms of rewards rather than moral value.
- Children account for individual points of view and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs.
Specific Stage
Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange
STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
- Moral decisions are made in terms of laws or general rules about what is right and what is wrong.
- In this law and order stage, for example, people base their judgments on whether a law is broken or not.
Answer with Age
Conventional (Middle School Children/Early Adolescence - adulthood)
STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
- Often referred to as the “good boy-good girl” orientation.
- Focused on living up to social expectations and roles.
Specific Stage
Stage 3: Developing Good Interpersonal Relationships
STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
- People begin to consider society as a whole when making judgments.
- The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing one’s duty, and respecting authority.
Specific Stage
Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order
STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Decisions about right and wrong are based on the notion of moral relativity.
Answer with Age
Postconventional (Adolescents and Adults)
STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
- Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but members of the society should agree upon these standards.
- These ideas cause people in the next stage to begin to account for the differing values, opinions, and beliefs of other people.
Specific Stage
Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights
STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
- Final level of moral reasoning is based on universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning.
- At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules.
Specific Stage
Stage 6: Universal Principles
THEORIES OF LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT
Children develop an inner representation of their relationship with their primary caregivers.
John Bowlby’s Theory
(John Bowlby’s Stages of Attachment)
THEORIES OF LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT
This inner representation, or working model, becomes the basis for their subsequent adult relationships.
John Bowlby’s Theory
(John Bowlby’s Stages of Attachment)
JOHN BOWLBY’S STAGES OF ATTACHMENT
The infant does not discriminate between caregivers.
Answer with age
Pre-attachment (Birth - 6 weeks old)
JOHN BOWLBY’S STAGES OF ATTACHMENT
Prefers familiar people but accepts care from anyone.
Answer with age
Attachment-in-the-Making (6 Weeks to 7 Months old)
JOHN BOWLBY’S STAGES OF ATTACHMENT
Specific attachment to the primary caregiver(s) develops.
Answer with age
Clear-Cut Attachment (7-24 Months old)
JOHN BOWLBY’S STAGES OF ATTACHMENT
Formation of Reciprocal Relationships (24 months +)
Answer with age
Formation of Reciprocal Relationships (24 months and older)
THEORIES OF LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT
- Expanded greatly upon Bowlby’s original work.
- Her groundbreaking “strange situation” study revealed the profound effects of attachment on behavior.
Mary Salter Ainsworth’s Theory
(Mary Salter Ainsworth Three Major Attachment Styles)
MARY AINSWORTH THREE MAJOR ATTACHMENT STYLES
Infants who are securely attached perceive the attachment figure as a secure base from which they can confidently explore unfamiliar environments.
Secure Attachment
MARY AINSWORTH THREE MAJOR ATTACHMENT STYLES
When separated from their caregivers, they display a moderate degree of distress (separation anxiety) but are easily comforted upon the caregiver’s return.
Secure Attachment
MARY AINSWORTH THREE MAJOR ATTACHMENT STYLES
Parents of children who are securely attached display a high level of warmth and are sensitive to their children’s needs.
Secure Attachment
MARY AINSWORTH THREE MAJOR ATTACHMENT STYLES
Infants with this type of attachment have a tendency to avoid or ignore their caregiver.
Insecure-Avoidant Attachment
MARY AINSWORTH THREE MAJOR ATTACHMENT STYLES
They show very little anxiety in the absence of the attachment figure and do not seek comfort from him/her when in distress.
Insecure-Avoidant Attachment
MARY AINSWORTH THREE MAJOR ATTACHMENT STYLES
children with this attachment style tends to have caregivers who are largely unresponsive to their needs.
Insecure-Avoidant Attachment
MARY AINSWORTH THREE MAJOR ATTACHMENT STYLES
These infants fail to develop a sense of security in the presence of their caregiver and are hesitant to move away in order to explore unfamiliar surroundings.
Insecure-Resistant Attachment
MARY AINSWORTH THREE MAJOR ATTACHMENT STYLES
These children display the highest level of emotional distress in the absence of their caregiver and in the presence of a stranger (stranger anxiety).
Insecure-Resistant Attachment
MARY AINSWORTH THREE MAJOR ATTACHMENT STYLES
Form of attachment usually have caregivers who are inconsistent in responding to their needs.
Insecure-Resistant Attachment
THEORIES OF LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT
- Showed the importance of maternal attachment bonds in his work with infant Rhesus monkeys.
- He removed young monkeys from their natural mothers a few hours after birth and left them to be “raised” by these mother surrogates. The experiment demonstrated that the baby monkeys spent significantly more time with their cloth mother than with their wire mother.
Harry Harlow
THEORIES OF LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT
- Development reflects the influence of several environmental systems.
- The theory identifies five environmental system
Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Theory
(Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory)
URIE BRONFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL THEORY
Setting in which the individual lives (person’s family, peers, school, and neighborhood).
Microsystem
URIE BRONFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL THEORY
Involves relations between microsystems or connections between contexts (relation of family experiences to school experiences, school experiences to religious experiences, and family experiences to peer experiences.)
Mesosystem
URIE BRONFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL THEORY
Consists of links between a social setting in which the individual does not have an active role and the individual’s immediate context.
Exosystem
URIE BRONFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL THEORY
Involves the culture in which individuals live.
Macrosystem
URIE BRONFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL THEORY
Consists of the patterning of environmental events and transitions over the life course, as well as sociohistorical circumstances.
Chronosystem
THEORIES OF LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT
- Life span developmental psychologist Paul Baltes identified three social influences on the course of development.
- These interact in ways that result in the patterning of specific life events.
Paul Baltes
(Paul Baltes Life Span Development Theory)
PAUL BALTES LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT THEORY
The expectations associated with specific ages reflected in a given culture.
Age-Graded Normative Influences
PAUL BALTES LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT THEORY
The effects of living in a given time and place that have similar influences on people within that society.
History-graded normative influences
PAUL BALTES LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT THEORY
Random, unpredictable influences that are idiosyncratic to each individual
Nonnormative influences
Three Stages of Gestation
Zygote: Conception to 2 weeks
Embryo: 2 weeks to 8 weeks
Fetus: 8 weeks to Birth
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
- Fertilization occurs
- Zygote implants itself in the lining of the uterus ending the zygote period
- Rapid cell division occurs
- Embryonic stage lasts from end of the 2nd week to end of the 8th week
- Cells differentiate into three distinct layers: the ectoderm, the mesoderm, and the endoderm
- Nervous system begins to develop
- Embryo is 1/2 inch long
1st Month
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
- Heart and blood vessels form
- Head area develops rapidly
- Eyes begin to form detail
- Internal organs grow, especially the digestive system
- Sex organs develop rapidly and sex is distinguished
- Arms and legs form and grow
- Heart begins to beat faintly
- Embryo is 1 inch long and weighs 1/10 ounce
2nd Month
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
- Head growth occurs rapidly
- Bones begin to form rapidly, which marks the transition to the fetal stage
- The digestive organs begin to function
- Arms, legs, and fingers make spontaneous movements
- Fetus is 3 inches long and weighs 1 ounce
3rd Month
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
- Lower parts of the body show rapid growth
- Bones are distinct in X-ray films
- Reflex movement becomes more active
- Heartbeat detected by physician
- Sex organs are fully formed
- Fetus is 7 inches long and weighs 5 ounces
4th Month
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
- Mother begins to feel reflex movements
- A fine, downy fuzz covers the entire body
- Vernix (a waxy coating) collects over the body
- Ears and nose begin to develop cartilage
- Fingernails and toenails begin to appear
- Fetus shows hiccups, thumb sucking, and kicking
- Fetus is 12 inches long and weighs 14 ounces
5th Month
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
- Eyes and eyelids fully formed
- Fat is developing under the skin
- Fetus is 14 inches long and weighs 2 pounds
6th Month
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
- Cerebral cortex of brain develops rapidly
- Fetus is 17 inches long and weighs 3 pounds
7th Month
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
- Subcutaneous fat is deposited for later use
- Fingernails reach beyond the fingertips
- Fetus is 17 inches long and weighs 5 pounds
8th Month
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
- Hair covering the entire body is shed
- Organ systems function actively
- Vernix is present over the entire body
- Fetus settles into position for birth
- Neonate is 21 inches long and weighs 7 pounds
9th Month
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT MILESTONES OR STAGES
- Rolls over
- Grasps rattle
1 Month
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT MILESTONES OR STAGES
Sits without support
6 months
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT MILESTONES OR STAGES
Stands holding on
7 month
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT MILESTONES OR STAGES
Grasps with thumb and finger
8 months
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT MILESTONES OR STAGES
Stands well alone
11 months
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT MILESTONES OR STAGES
Walks well alone
12 months
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT MILESTONES OR STAGES
Builds tower of two cubes
15 months
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT MILESTONES OR STAGES
Walks up steps
17 months
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT MILESTONES OR STAGES
Jumps in place
24 months
REFLEXES PRESENT AT BIRTH
Holds a finger or other object firmly
Grasping reflex
REFLEXES PRESENT AT BIRTH
Turns head when touched on cheek
Rooting Reflex
REFLEXES PRESENT AT BIRTH
Clears the throat
Gag Reflex
REFLEXES PRESENT AT BIRTH
Flings out the arms, fans the fingers, and arches the back in response to a sudden noise
Startle reflex
REFLEXES PRESENT AT BIRTH
Sucks objects placed in mouth
Sucking Reflex
REFLEXES PRESENT AT BIRTH
Curls toes when outer edge of sole of foot is stroked
Babinski reflex
PARENTING STYLES
- A restrictive, punitive style in which parents exhort the child to follow their directions and to respect their work and effort.
- Parent places firm limits and controls on the child and allows little verbal exchange.
Authoritarian Parenting
PARENTING STYLES
A parenting style in which parents encourage their children to be independent but still place limits and controls on their actions.
Authoritative Parenting
PARENTING STYLES
A style of parenting in which the parent is uninvolved in the child’s life
Neglectful Parenting
PARENTING STYLES
A style of parenting in which parents are highly involved with their children but place few demands or controls on them.
Indulgent Parenting
Reasons that Erikson’s theory of identity development contains four statuses of identity, or ways of resolving the identity crisis
James Marcia (1980, 1994)
PARENTING STYLES
Erikson’s term for the gap between childhood security and adult autonomy.
Psychosocial Moratorium
PARENTING STYLES
Adolescents who do not successfully resolve this identity crisis suffers this
Identity Confusion
- The status of individuals who have not yet experienced a crisis or made any commitments.
- Not only are they undecided about occupational and ideological choices, they are also likely to show little interest in such matters.
Identity Diffusion
- The status of individuals who have made a commitment but not experienced a crisis.
- This occurs most often when parents hand down commitments to their adolescents, usually in an authoritarian way, before adolescents have had a chance to explore different approaches, ideologies, and vocations on their own.
Identity Foreclosure
The status of individuals who are in the midst of a crisis but whose commitments are either absent or are only vaguely defined.
Identity Moratorium
The status of individuals who have undergone a crisis and made a commitment
Identity Achievement
Developmental Issues
Nature vs. Nurture Issue
Stability vs. Change Issue
Continuity vs. Discontinuity Issue
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF AGING
Natural selection has not eliminated many harmful conditions and non-adaptive characteristics in older adults because natural selection is linked to reproductive fitness, which is present only in the earlier part of adulthood.
Evolutionary Theory of Aging
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF AGING
Leonard Hayflick’s (1977) theory that cells can divide a maximum of about 75 to 80 times, and that as we age our cells become less capable of dividing.
Cellular Clock Theory
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF AGING
States that people age because when cells metabolize energy, the by-products include unstable oxygen molecules known as free radicals.
Free-Radical Theory
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF AGING
- States that aging is due to the decay of mitochondria.
- Mitochondrial theory views emphasize that this decay is primarily caused by oxidative damage and loss of critical micronutrients supplied by the cell.
Mitochondrial theory
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF AGING
are a family of proteins that have been linked to longevity, regulation of mitochondria functioning in energy, possible benefits of calorie restriction, stress resistance, and lower rates of cardiovascular disease and cancer.
Sirtuin
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF AGING
Proposals have been made that the mTOR pathway has a central role in the life of cells, acting as a cellular router for growth, protein production/metabolism, and stem cell functioning.
mTOR Pathway Theory
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF AGING
TOR stands for ? and in mammals it is called mTOR.
Target of rapamycin
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF AGING
Argues that aging in the body’s hormonal system can lower resistance to stress and increase the likelihood of disease.
Hormonal Stress Theory
INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD
The decrease in response to a stimulus that occurs after the same stimulus is repeatedly presented, is used to measure an infant’s awareness.
Habituation
INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD
By _ months, infants can discriminate all sounds relevant to language production.
7 months
VISUAL PERCEPTION
Color Perception
1 month
VISUAL PERCEPTION
Focus on near or far objects
4 months
VISUAL PERCEPTION
Recognition of two- and three-dimensional objects
4-5 months
VISUAL PERCEPTION
Different responses to different facial expressions, such as smiles or frowns
7 months
CHILDHOOD:PHYSICAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
In the first ____ months, children triple their birth weight and double their height
12 months
CHILDHOOD:PHYSICAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
From age _ to _ , children gain about 5 pounds and 3 inches’ height per year. However, the proportions of the body also change such that the head grows at a slower rate than the rest of the body
3 to 13
CHILDHOOD:PHYSICAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
From age 3 to 13 , children gain about _ pounds and _ inches’ height per year. However, the proportions of the body also change such that the head grows at a slower rate than the rest of the body
5 Pounds and 3 Inches
INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD
Newborns show a preference for ____ tastes.
Sweet Tastes
