Unit 4 Flashcards
Intra-group and inter-group
What influence does “a single piece of shared identity” have on us?
it is enough for our cognition to categorize them as “one of us”
Intra-group and inter-group
What is the In-group? What is the Out-group?
- In-group: any group you belong to
- Out-group: any group yo are not part of
Intra-group and inter-group
What is the outgroup homogeneity effect?
bold
a psychological tendency to perceive members of an out-group as more similar to each other than they actually are
Intra-group and inter-group
Which forms can our attitudes towards other groups take?
3 different forms
1. In-group favouritism
2. In-group derogation
3. Intergroup indifference
Intra-group and inter-group
What is In-group favouritism?
italic
where people naturally trust, prefer and defend their own group over outsiders
Intra-group and inter-group
What is In-group derogation?
italic
where members of a group criticize their own while sometimes holding an out-group in higher regard
Intra-group and inter-group
What is an Intergroup indifference?
there is a stance of neutrality between our perceptions of the in-group and the out-group
Intra-group and inter-group
What does Ethnocentrism always involves?
in-group favouritism and so is affected by the outgroup homoge- neity effect.
-> However, in this case it primarily refers to ethnic, national, religious, or cultural groups, and it involves some degree of superiority or judgment towards others (out-groups)
Structure of Groups
What are secondary groups are often based on?
shared interests or common goals
e.g. workplace teams, trade unions or professional associations
Structure of Groups
What are primary groups?
Those in which individuals share close, enduring relationships built on emotional attachment, such as families or lifelong friendships
Structure of Groups
What can groups be categorized on beyond structure?
on the depth of relationships among members
Structure of Groups
What are informal groups formed like?
spontaneously, without strict structures or pre-established rules
-> groups thrive on social bonds and shared interests rather than formal leadership
Structure of Groups
What are formal groups are created with?
a specific structure, rules and goals
-> groups have defined leadership, roles and expectations
Structure of Groups
What does one of the most widely accepted classifications divides groups based on?
formality and intimacy to formal and informal groups
Structure of Groups
What is a small group?
usually emphasizes close relationships and frequent interactions
-> e.g. six students of the same nationality within a class who are friends with each other
Structure of Groups
What is a sub-group?
a specialized unit within a larger group whose members share a specific task, role, interest but still belong to the main group
-> departments within a company
Structure of Groups
What happens often when groups grow in size?
they break down into sub-groups or small groups
-> terms are not interchangeable
Structure of Groups
What is formed when at least two people come together?
A group is formed.
Structure of Groups
are norms like laws?
no, they are negotiable and rely on a different kind of enforcement: approval and inclusion
Structure of Groups
What does the well-known principle ignorantia legis non excusat enforces?
compliance through punishment in the legal system
Structure of Groups
What do psychologists call Situational norm adherence?
civic responsibility in the absence of explicit laws requiring this
Structure of Groups
Do individuals always follow norms?
no, only when there is an authority figure present (a teacher, manager, police officer)
-> someone who can actually enforce the norm
Structure of Groups
What is Internalization?
the process by which individuals adopt the values and behaviors of a group as their own
What precisely do norms emerge from?
normalcy
-> derived from common expectations of behavior
What are norms?
Norms are unwritten rules or expectations about how to behave in certain situations, derived from common societal expectations.
What is the Blue-Green Study?
participants were shown slides in varying shades of blue
-> 2 people in each group repeatedly claimed that the blue slides were actually green
-> majority of people knew slides were blue but they began to doubt their own perception
What did Serge Moscovici designed?
the Blue-Green Study
What does the broken windows theory state?
that visible signs of disorder send a message: a single broken window left unattended is an invitation for increasing rule-breaking
What was the experiment conducted at Newcastle University about?
It examined how visibility affects norm compliance, using an honesty box for coffee payments.
What do we do when there are no clear rules or preferences?
we copy what other people are doing, assuming they have a clue
What do people rely on when making uncertain decisions?
social cues
What did Moscovici’s research imply about minority influence?
A small, consistent minority can shift the majority’s perception.
-> same strategy used by the few people who hold power in the world
What is the role the Mentor?
the go-to advisor who voluntarily helps others develop their skills, earning respect through experience and guidance
What is the role The Gossip?
some individuals naturally become information brokers, spreading the news (or rumors) about group members
-> can also serve as social purpose, but is an example of negative emergent role as it may cause divisions, create misunderstandings and damage trust
What is the role the clown?
aligning with a tension releaser there is always someone who brings levity to serious discussions and boost orale
-> if humor is excessive, it can sometimes undermine serious discussions or disrupt productivity
what is the role the confidant?
like a social supporter or counsellor, every group has someone who naturally becomes the trusted person
-> The individual people turn to when they need to vent, seek advice or discuss concerns privately
What are certain patterns that constantly appear across different settings?
- The Confidant
- The Clown
- The Gossip
- The Mentor
- The Scapegoat
What are assigned roles in a group?
Roles that come with titles or formal expectations and clear responsibilities.
What is status often marked by?
symbols, subtle or overt
-> distinguish members from one another
is status static?
no
What is the role Scapegoat?
The target of blame, often unfairly held responsible for group failures. In stressful situations, some groups assign blame to a specific individual even when the real issue is collective
What is a hidden risk of a tetrad?
deadlocks when opinions are evenly split (two competing dyads) -> leading to division instead of collaboration
What is a hidden risk of a triad?
the coalition
-> rivalries, betrayals, eventual collapse
what does Size change in a Group?
Size changes interactions, affects communication and decision-making, with one extra person reshaping dynamics.
What is Power in leadership?
the ability to influence or control others. It can come from a formal position, wealth, resources, or status
What is leadership about?
leading a group towards a goal
What is leadership at its core about?
influence
What is leadership in opinion of Sergio about?
the moments where someone decides to step forward when it matters most
What is a common misconception about leadership?
That leadership is primarily about giving orders.
How do behavioral theories view leadership?
they say leadership is not about who you are but about what you do.
Which 4 key traits of effective leaders did Stephen Zaccaro identify?
confidence, emotional intelligence, decisiveness and resilience
What are Trait theories?
emerged to look for a middle ground, seeking common personality characteristics among successful leaders
What is Authority in leadership?
the legitimacy granted by followers. A leader with authority (not an authoritarian leader) is trusted, respected and willingly forced. People must recognize it voluntarily
What does the transactional leadership do?
it is like entering into a clear ‘transaction’, no inspiration or profound change Is required, just clear and predictable interactions
-> relationship feels more like an agreement, an economic exchange of effort for reward
What does the transformational leadership make?
makes followers grow, dream and even reshape their identities and values
What is the main idea behind Contingency theories?
There is no universal leadership style; it depends on the situation.
What should leadership be about?
talent, vision and character
What do woman often hit even when they do climb through the ranks?
an invisible ceiling
the glass ceiling
Where do females often find themselves caught between?
two impossible expectations:
- if they are assertive, direkt and confident they are labelled as aggressive, bossy or even unlikeable
- if they choose to be empathetic, cooperative or diplomatic, they are quickly dismissed as weak, overly emotional or lacking authority
What is an ironic twist in the stereotype threat?
the hesitations ends up confirming precisely the stereotype we would fight against
What is the significance of women’s representation in leadership?
Women still face significant hurdles in attaining high-level leadership positions despite progress in narrowing the gender gap.
How can an individual’s behavior change in different groups?
An individual can behave very differently depending on the group they are in.
Why do people follow norms?
People follow norms out of fear of social consequences and a desire to fit in with what is perceived as normal behavior.
What two images were alternated above the honesty box during the Newcastle University experiment?
A pair of eyes staring directly forward and a neutral image of flowers.
What are emergent roles in a group?
Roles that develop organically based on group needs, personalities, and social interactions.
What is a Dyad?
A group consisting of two people; the most basic and intimate form of group.
-> they thrive on trust, mutual effort, and a constant balance of give and take
-> most fragile type of group
How does authority differ from authoritarian leadership?
Authority is based on trust and respect from followers, while authoritarian leadership relies on coercion and control.
Who proposed that leaders have a fixed style in the 1960s?
Psychologist Fred Fiedler.
What did Claude Steele and Joshua Aronson contribute to the understanding of women in leadership?
stereotype threat
-> when you are aware of a negative stereotype (hence prejudice) about yourself, you might become so worried about confirming it that your performance actually suffers
What is one key fact about groups?
_Groups are inevitable_
How do norms develop?
Norms develop from what is considered normal behavior, emerging from shared expectations in a group or society.
What does the term ‘norm compliance’ refer to?
The tendency of individuals to adhere to societal expectations or norms.
How do people typically fall into roles in a group?
Participants unconsciously adopt roles like leaders, supporters, critics, or questioners based on social patterns.
What is an example of status in a meeting room?
The most senior executive often takes the seat at the head of the table.
What is a Triad?
A group consisting of three people, introducing more complexity and opportunities for different pairings.
-> offers stability because the group can continue even if one person disengages
What are the two main perspectives on leadership ability?
The two main perspectives are that leadership is a born trait (Great Man/Woman theory) or that it can be learned and perfected over time.
What are the two types of leadership styles identified by Fiedler?
Task-oriented and relationship-oriented.
How do groups influence individuals?
_Groups influence us deeply_
__Normalcy__
__Normalcy__ is the condition of being normal; the state of being usual, typical, or expected.
How does visibility influence norm compliance according to the studies?
People are more likely to follow social norms when they believe they are being observed.
What concept is illustrated by the parking lot analogy?
The tendency of people to conform to the behavior of others in social situations.
What is the significance of group roles?
They shape the functioning and dynamics of the group.
what is a Tetrad?
a group of four.
-> seems like ideal size, roles can be divided efficiently when each person brings a unique skill set
What was the Great Man/Woman theory of leadership?
The Great Man/Woman theory suggests that leaders are born with inherent qualities suited for leadership, rather than developing these skills.
Can leaders with opposite approaches be successful?
Yes, depending on the needs of the company or team.
What can groups do to their members?
_Groups can empower or divide_
