Unit 2 Flashcards
Do people who prefer solitude have experienced a magnetic pull toward others?
yes
magnetic pull - introduction
is the magnetic pull arbitrary?
no
magnetic pull - introduction
What is the pull driven by?
a social instinct that connects people in their search for affection, attention, emotional support, safety, security, and a sense of belonging
Why were people drawn to groups throughout history?
not just for emotional comfort but for reasons that reflect core psychological and survival needs
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What do social groups offer?
practical advantages that enhance our individual capabilities
What do people gain access to, when they come together?
shared knowledge, skills, resources that may not be avialable to someone acting alone
Access through coming together
Where do we see an example of this?
in traditional farming communities
-> cooperative efforts like neighbors sharing tools, techniques and labour often leads to higher agricultural yields and more reliable food supply compared to individual efforts
Access through coming together
What is a example for benefits through coming together in moder scientific collaborations?
experts from diverse disciplines work toward a common goal, breakthroughs are achieved at a speed and scale that no lone researcher could match
What explains why groups play such a vital role in society?
the capacity for groups to combine their strengths and achieve collective goals
What do several perspectives on theories of groups reveal?
What is it result of?
human inclination to group together is far more than matter of convenience or practicality
-> it is result of a complex interplay of biological, psychological and social forces that has shaped human behavior for millennia (1000y)
The Sociobiological approach
What did Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection suggest?
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that survival did not favour the strongest or most intelligent but those who most adapted to their environment
The Sociobiological approach - Cave scenario
What is it important to distinguish between regarding safety?
between phyiscal safety and emotional safety (we can only rely on one another in moments of uncertainty)
The Sociobiological approach - Cave scenario
Do threats always come from the outside?
no
e.g. conflict
The Sociobiological approach - Cave scenario
How do we communicate when disagreements arise?
through gestures of reconciliation, shared meals to restore peace, collective decisions that prioritize groups survival
The Sociobiological approach - Cave scenario
What happens if we can resolve disputes and maintain unity?
our chances of survival increase dramatically
-> hasn’t always been like that but people who looked after each other survived better and passed on genes & behavior to offspring
The Sociobiological approach - Cave scenario
What was the survival of the fittest about?
not about being the strongest individual but about bein gpart of the right group
The Sociobiological approach
What did Darwin say to hint that survival of the fittest is about being part of the right group?
“humans owe their success more to cooperation and collaboration than to their individual prowess”
The Sociobiological approach
Which same survival instincts continue to shape human behavior in group behavior?
groups that could coordinate their efforts, trust one another and maintain order thrived
-> e.g. disaster - strangers cooperate to rescue and help
The Sociobiological approach
Which theory explains the behavior of strangers cooperating together to help in situations of dispair?
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Taylor’s Tend-and-Befriend theory
The Sociobiological approach
What does Taylor’s Tend-and-Befriend theory propose?
that humans in times of stress or danger are biologically inclined to strengthen social bonds and nurture their connections rather than rely solely on aggression or escape: the fight-or-flight response to danger
The Sociobiological approach - Tend and befriend theory
Why were Taylor’s research findings particularly notable?
because they highlighted gender-specific responses to stress
The Sociobiological approach - Tend and befriend theory
What did Taylors findings on gender specific responses show?
that woman more often than men often respond to threats by “tending” to their offspring and “befriending” others to form protective alliances
-> ensured survival of group, especcially for the vulnerable such as children
The Sociobiological approach - Tend and befriend theory
What were the results on Taylors stress-including tasks of solving difficult math problems under time pressure?
- women were more likely to display nurturing and affiliative behaviors during and after the task, including reaching out for emotional support
- men were more likely to focus on individual problem-solving or withdrawal
The Sociobiological approach
What are two beautiful real-life stories of how working together benefits the survival of a group?
- 2010 Chilean mining accident: 33 miners were trapped underground for 69 days, survival depended on their ability to work together (ration resources and so on)
- 2018 Thai cave rescue: 12 boys + coach of soccer team blocked in flooded cage for 18 days (coach played crucial role by meditating)
The Sociobiological approach
What else does the Sociobiological approach explain?
(social exclusion)
why social exclusion is so painful
-> in prehistoric times exculsion from the group could be fatal (more vulnerable to starvation or other threats)
The Sociobiological approach
Why is there far more than a mere emotional wound in social exclusion?
because humans evolved to interpret exclusion as a survival threat
The Sociobiological approach
which experiment has been designed to measure the psychological effects of exclusion
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the cyberball experiment
The Sociobiological approach
What is the cyberball experiment?
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online game where participants toss virtual ball back and forth with two other “players” (controlled by researcher)
-> at first, ball passed to participant regularly but after few minutes, players stopped including them
-> player waiting infront of screen for turn to come - but turn never came
The Sociobiological approach
what kind of feelings did participants report in the cyberball experiment (even with rejection being virtual?
feelings of distress, loneliness, lower self-esteem
The Sociobiological approach
What do brain scans reveal in the cyberball experiment?
heightened activity in the anterior cingulate cortex
-> the same region activated during physical pain
The Sociobiological approach
What did another research found regarding lacking strong social ties?
is as harmful to health as smoking 15 cigarettes a day or being obese
The Sociobiological approach
What does Social isolation increase?
the risk of heart disease, high blood pressure, depression, premature death
-> lesson: to survive, we need one another
The Sociobiological approach
How did social psychologists Roy Baumeister and Mark Leary (1995) expand on the sociobiological approach?
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with their theory of the need to belong
bold AND underlined!
The Sociobiological approach
What did Roy Baumeister and Mark Leary describe the theory of the need to belong as?
universal, innate drive to form and maintain meaningful social connections
-> a necessity on par with basic needs like water or food
The Sociobiological approach
What does the theory of the need to belong seems to be regarding culture?
it seems to transcend cultural differences being present in almost every human society
The Sociobiological approach
When do humans naturally start seeking out social bonds?
italic
from a young age already
-> they do not need formal instructions to learn how to connect with others, it happens instinctively
The Sociobiological approach
Do children naturally follow rules?
yes, they establish unspoken rules about who is “in” or “out”
-> behaviors rooted in a biological drive for inclusion
The Sociobiological approach
How do children react to being left out of group activities?
feelings of sadness, rejection and even physical discomfort
The Sociobiological approach
What is another behavior observed in many species to avoid confusion with manipulative behaviors?
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social grooming
The Sociobiological approach
What does social grooming refer to in the context of evolutionary biology?
positive bonding behaviors
-> originates from behaviors observed in primates, where it involves cleaning each others fur, removing parasites or scratching each others backs
The Sociobiological approach
How has social grooming evolved in humans?
What are modern forms of social grooming?
beyond physical touch into emotional and verbal forms of bonding
-> hugging for comfort, lend a shoulder to cry, and so on
The Sociobiological approach
What have studies shown about simple acts of kindness?
can reduce stress and increase our feelings of safety and belonging
-> smiling at other people serves as emotional anchors that help people feel valued and included
The Sociobiological approach
What does the sociobiological approach also explains?
regarding helping people
altruistic behavior
The Sociobiological approach
What is altruistic behavior?
act of helping others without immediate personal gain
-> more than just an expression of morality
The Sociobiological approach
What does Hamilton’s theory of inclusive fitness (1964) suggest?
bold
humans are biologically programmed to help those who share their genes such as family members
-> doing so indirectly promotes the continuation of their genetic material (kin-based alturism)
The Sociobiological approach
What is the underlying idea of kin-based altruism?
by helping relatives survive and reproduce, you increase the chances that your shared genetic material will be passed on to future genera- tions
The Sociobiological approach
do all acts of altruism involve family members?
no
-> humans frequently help non-kin (people who do not share genetic material) in ways that do not seem to offer immediate benefits
The cognitive approach
What did Leon Festinger propose in 1954 about people forming groups?
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The Social Comparison Theory
-> we form groups not just for survival or emotional support, but to satisfy an internal need for self-evaluation
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The cognitive approach
What do we constantly do with the people around us?
we compare ouselves, draw conclusions about our performance, status or beliefs based on the behaviors and achievements of others
-> the reference points
The cognitive approach
What are the 2 primary forms of comparison?
- Upward comparison: comparing ourselves to others who are more skilled, successful or superior
- Downward comparison: evaluating ouselves against those we perceive as less skilled, succesful or in a worse position
The cognitive approach
What can upward comparison be?
inspiring, but they can also trigger feelings of inadequacy, envy, self-doubt if the gap between our current state and reference point seems too large
The cognitive approach
Where do we nowadays see examples of upward comparison?
in social media
-> significant source of stress or anxiety due to unrealistic expectations
The cognitive approach
What can downward comparison do?
boost self-esteem by reassuring us we are doing better than others
-> relying to much on it can lead to complacency or false sense of security, making individuals less. motivated to continue improving
The cognitive approach
What does Leon Festinger emphasize regarding social comparison?
the emotional impact of social comparison depends on the context and relevance of the domain being compared
The cognitive approach
How does it influence us, if the domain being compared is not particularly important to our identity?
it may have little to no emotional effect
The cognitive approach
What is a great study to illustrate the influence of domains on comparison?
housing study from 1950’s -> study revealed that people living together were more likely to form stron social ties and as a result compared themselves to their neighbors in areas like academic achievements, job prospects and social status
The cognitive approach
What is another important contribution of Festingers theory?
explanation why people seek validation from their peers within groups
-> when uncertaine about beliefs or abilities: often look for reassurance
-> gauge validity of their thoughts and behaviors by observing how they align with group norms
The cognitive approach
What does collective validation reduce?
italic
uncertainty and helps individuals build confidence in their decisions
-> e.g. addiction: sharing experiences and progress
The cognitive approach
What can help individuals feeling less alone in their struggles and more confident in their ability to overcome challenges?
hearing similar stories from others
The cognitive approach
what does the group becomes a source of through collective validation?
a source of both emotional comfort and practical guidance
-> demonstrating how social comparison is not just about competition but also about shared understanding mutual support
Social Identity Theory
What did Henri Tajfel and John Turner (1979) propose?
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the way we see ourseves is strongly influenced by the groups to which we belong
Social Identity Theory
What does a significant part of our self-concept (our understanding of who we are) comes from?
social identities
-> derived from membership in groups such as families, sports teams, nationalities or professional organizations
Social Identity Theory
What is the theory of Henri Tajfel and John Turner built on?
2 aspects
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- social categorization
- intergroup comparison
Social Identity Theory
What is social categorization?
occurs when we classify people, including ourselves, into groups
-> classification simplifies the complexity of the social world by organizing it into categories such as “us” -the ingroup- and “them” -the outgroup-
Social Identity Theory
What can social categorization lead to?
stereotyping and biases when individuals overgeneralize the traits of others based on group membership
Social Identity Theory
What happens once we categorize people into groups?
we engage in intergroup comparison
e.g. a person who strongly identifies with their nationailty may view their country as superior to others
Social Identity Theory
What can intergroup comparison lead to?
conflict, discrimination, prejudice
-> when individuals feel the need to elevate their groups status by diminishing the status of others
Social Identity Theory
What is one of the most famous demonstrations of the Social Identity Theory?
(which experiment)
Tajfel’s Minimal Group Experiments
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Social Identity Theory
What was Tajfel’s Minimal Group Experiment about?
he was to strip away all meaningful reasons for group loyalty and see if group favouritism would still emerge under “minimal” conditions
-> school-aged boys were divided into groups by flipping a coin (ensured that there were no pre-existing relationships, no shared goals and no history of competition)… and so on
Social Identity Theory
What was the result of Tajfel’s Minimal Group Experiment?
participant consistently favoured their in-group when distributing rewards.
e.g. three choices were structured to reveal how much they prioritizes the ingroup’s advantage, participants most frequently chose to maximize the difference, even though it meant their own group received fewer points overall
Social Identity Theory
What did the results of Tajfel’s Minimal Group Experiment demonstrate?
relative superiority was more important than absolute gains: it was not about giving the in-group more but ensuring the out-group had less
-> reinforcing psychological reward of feeling superior
Social Identity Theory
How did the behavior of subjects change after changing variables in Tajfel’s Minimal Group Experiment?
behavior remained largely the same
Social Identity Theory
What is the main take away from Tajfel’s Minimal Group Experiment?
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that group loyality and discrimination are not always driven by rational calculations or material incentives
-> psychological benefits of belonging to a group and enhancing its status can be just as powerful
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Self-Categorization Theory
What did John Turner attempted to explain?
how individuals navigate the balance between their personal identity and their social identity
-> his theory emphasizes people constantly move along it depending on the situation - this movement is driven by cognitive process of self-categorization (how people can classify themselves into social groups)
Self-Categorization Theory
What are the three important dynamics in self-categorization theory?
- salience
- depersonalization
- individuality
Self-Categorization Theory
What is Salience?
italic
refers to how certain group memberships become more prominent of “activated” depending on the situation
-> people usually highlight the identity most relevant to the context
e.g. a person who is a teacher and a parent may prioritize their identity as a parent at home and as a teacher in the classroom
Self-Categorization Theory
What is another illustration of salience?
national identity during international events
-> a person who normally doesn’t think about their nationality may feel a heightened sense of patriotism while watching their country compete in the Olympics
-> national identity becomes salient!
Self-Categorization Theory
What is Depersonalization?
italic
occurs when individuals temporarily suppress or downplay their personal identity in favour of adopting the shared identity of a group
-> temporary priority of the “we” over the “I”
Self-Categorization Theory
What does Depersonalization refers to in group settings?
conforming to group norms, adopting behaviors, language, or symbols that signify group membership
-> e.g. military training camps - depersonalization, adopting to the group’s values, routines and discipline
Self-Categorization Theory
What is Individuality?
Individuals retain aspects of their personal identity that differentiate them from others, even within the same group
e.g. sports teams: athletes share a common team identity, but each player brings unique skills and roles to the group
Self-Categorization Theory
What is a classic experiment demonstrating self-categorization?
participants were divided into groups and asked to complete tasks that involved making decisions collectively. Some tasks required consensus on solution, others gave individual freedom
-> in one condition the shared identity was made salient by emphasizing the participants had common goals (more likely to conform!)
-> another condition shared identity was downplayed and participants were encouraged to see themselves as individuals rather part of group (more likely to stick to personal opinions, even when conflicted with groups consensus!)
Self-Categorization Theory
What does the Utilitarian perspective argues?
that behavior is guided by the principle of utility (pursuit of maximizinig positive outcomes while minimizing negative ones)
Self-Categorization Theory
Where does the Utilitarian approach has its roots?
in Utilitarianism
-> ethical theory most famously associated with philosophers such as Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill
-> the “right” action is the one that brings about greatest amount of happiness to greatest number of people
Self-Categorization Theory
How can we apply Utilitarianism to groups?
it suggests that individuals join and remain in groups because doing so provides them with tangible and intangible rewards
Social Exchange Theory
What did John Thibaut and Harold Kelley propose in the 1950s and 1960s?
interactions between people function much like transactions in the marketplace
-> individuals are constantly assess rewards (benefits) they receive from social interactions and comparing them to the costs (efforts or sacrifices) they incur
Social Exchange Theory
What do people according to the social exchange theory strive to?
maximize rewards while minimizing costs
-> evaluation influences their decisions to join, stay in or leave groups
Social Exchange Theory
how can that theory explain altruistic acts in groups?
sometimes an act seems selfless, but has underlying benefits
-> i do something for you, i expect you to do something for me
Social Exchange Theory
Which concept did Robert Trives introduce?
the concept of reciprocal altruism
Social Exchange Theory
what is the concept of reciprocal altruism?
a system of mutual help and cooperation based on the expectation of future returns
-> people help others even if they are not family, because doing so can result in long-term benefits
Social Exchange Theory
What are examples of reciprocal altruism?
volunteer programs, disaster relief efforts and neighbourhood support systems
