unit 4 Flashcards
1
Q
Attribution
A
giving credit to someone or something.
2
Q
Attribution theory
A
states that we have a tendency to give causal explanations for someone’s behavior, often by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition.
- A theory that describes how people explain their own and others’ behavior.
3
Q
Dispositional attribution
A
attributing someone’s behavior, thoughts, beliefs, etc. to the person’s traits and characteristics. Ex. thinking someone is smart, lazy, etc.
4
Q
Situational attribution
A
attributing someone’s behavior, thought’s beliefs, etc. to environmental factors outside of the person’s control. Ex. it was the ref’s fault, the test was too hard, etc.
5
Q
Fundamental attribution error
A
the tendency to overemphasize dispositional factors and to underestimate situational factors when making attributions about the cause of another person’s behavior.
6
Q
Just-world phenomenon
A
the tendency of people to believe the world is just, and people get what they deserve and deserve what they get.
7
Q
Self-serving bias
A
taking credit for their successes while at the same time attributing their failures to external situations beyond their control.
8
Q
Self-fulfilling prophecy
A
having expectations about an individual that influence your behavior towards him or her, which in turn influences the way this person behaves towards you.
9
Q
Attitudes
A
beliefs and feelings that guide behavior.
10
Q
Mere exposure effect (familiarity principle)
A
people tend to develop a preference for things merely because they are familiar with them.
11
Q
Central route of persuasion
A
when people focus on factual info, logical arguments, and thoughtful analysis. Ex. buying a car and looking at the gas mileage, safety ratings, etc.
12
Q
Peripheral route of persuasion
A
when people focus on emotional appeals in incidental cues. Ex. buying a car based on its color, sound system, etc.
13
Q
Foot-in-the-door
A
the persuasion strategy of getting a person to agree to a modest first request as a set-up for a later, much larger, request.
14
Q
Cognitive dissonance
A
the state of psychological tension, anxiety, and discomfort that occurs when a person’s attitude and behavior are inconsistent. Most people modify attitudes to reduce the dissonance.
- An uncomfortable state of mind arising when you recognize inconsistencies in your beliefs and/or behaviors. (cheating on a test when you know its wrong)
15
Q
Role playing
A
giving a person a specific role and having their attitude change based on the role they were given.
16
Q
Social influence
A
how attitudes, beliefs, decisions, and actions are molded by social influences.
17
Q
Chameleon effect
A
a person will unconsciously mimic or adopt behaviors, mannerisms, and actions of people or of an individual they are interacting with.
18
Q
Mood linkage
A
a person’s mood is based on the others of the group.
19
Q
Conformity
A
the tendency for people to adopt the behavior, attitudes, and beliefs of other members of a group.
20
Q
Normative Social Influence
A
influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid rejection. A person may respect normative behavior because there may be a severe price to pay if not respected.
-a situation where an individual conforms to the norms of a group so that they do not become an outcast
21
Q
Informational Social Influence
A
occurs when one turns to the members of one’s group to obtain accurate information. A person is most likely to use informational social influence in certain situations.
-where someone conforms to the behavior or opinions of others because they believe those others possess more accurate information about a situation, essentially changing their behavior to be “correct” in uncertain situations
22
Q
Compliance
A
an act of conforming, especially in a weak and subservient way. Usually someone asks you to conform.
23
Q
Obedience
A
obeying the direct orders of an authority or person of higher status.
24
Q
Individual resistance
A
one person can choose not to conform and can also have an effect on others.
25
Group influence
a type of conformity involving a person in a situation where they are unsure of the correct way to behave and will often look to others for cues concerning correct behavior.
26
Norms
implicit or explicit rules that apply to all members of the group that govern acceptable behavior and attitudes. Norms allow for smooth social interactions. Violating these norms can be grounds for exclusion from the group.
27
Roles
the position the person has in the group. Leader? Follower? Helper? These roles can be appointed or assumed.
28
Social loafing
people making less effort to achieve a goal when they work in a group than when they work alone, the “slackers”.
29
Deindividuation
the losing of one’s self-awareness and personal responsibility that can occur when a person is part of a group whose members feel anonymous
"losing onself in the crowd"
30
Social facilitation
the tendency for an individual’s performance to improve when simple or well-learned tasks are performed in the presence of others.
work better in front of others
31
Social impairment (inhibition)
the tendency for an individual’s performance to decline when complex or poorly-learned tasks are performed in the presence of others.
dont work well in front of others
32
Group polarization
the tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclination of its members. Ex. a group trying to plan prom but everyone has such elaborate ideas; no one can make a decision.
33
Groupthink
phenomenon that occurs within a group of people, in which the desire for harmony or conformity in the group results in an incorrect or deviant decision-making outcome. Ex. Bay of Pigs, Congress and pork barrel spending.
34
Minority influence
the minority of a group can have an effect on the group. Ex. The juror in Twelve Angry Men.
35
Social Relations
how people relate to one another which doesn’t always have to be positive.
36
Treatment of group members
we treat people in a group depending on how we perceive that person and the group.
37
Prejudice
a learned prejudgment toward people solely based on their membership in a specific social group. The prejudice can be positive or negative but most research focuses on the causes and consequences of negative prejudice.
38
Discrimination
the differential treatment of others, usually negative.
39
Ingroups
people with whom one shares a common identity.
40
Outgroups
those perceived as different from one’s in-group.
41
Stereotypes
generalized beliefs about a certain group, sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized.
42
Ingroup Bias
the tendency to favor one’s own group.
43
Scapegoat theory
people look for someone to blame when things go wrong, usually fueled by prejudice. Ex. After 9/11, Americans lashing out at Arab-Americans, the US putting Japanese-Americans in internment camps after the attack on Pearl Harbor.
44
Ethnocentrism
the tendency to consider other cultures, customs, and values as inferior to one’s own.
45
Contact theory
lessening the tensions between two groups by putting them together on an equal playing field. Usually the two groups have a goal to reach and they have to work together to reach that goal.
46
Culture
enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, & traditions shared by a group of people & transmitted from one generation to the next
47
Tight culture
place with clearly defined & reliably imposed norms
48
Loose culture
place with flexible & informal norms
49
Collectivism
: focus on “we,” & meeting group standards
50
Individualism
focus on “me,” & put individual interests first
51
Altruism
putting your own welfare aside to help others.
52
Social Exchange Theory
Our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs.
53
Social–Responsibility Norm
Tells us to help others when they need us even though they may not repay us in kind.
54
Social Trap
A situation in which a person acts to obtain short-term individual gains, which in the long run leads to a loss for the group as a whole.
55
Bystander effect
individuals are less likely to assist in an emergency situation when other people are present.
56
Diffusion of responsibility
explains the bystander effect: people are less likely to take action or feel a sense of responsibility in the presence of a large group of people. Ex. in the case of Kitty Genovese, people assumed others called the police.
57
Reciprocity norm
people are more likely to help someone if they are going to get something out of it.
58
Aggression
behavior that is intended to cause harm.
59
Proximity
Geographic nearness is a powerful predictor of friendship. Repeated exposure to stimuli increases their attraction
60
Physical Attractiveness
Once proximity affords contact the next most important thing in attraction is physical appearance.
61
Similarity
Having similar views between individuals causes the bond of attraction to strengthen.
62
Passionate Love
An aroused state of intense positive absorption in another usually present at the beginning of a love relationship.
63
Companionate Love
Deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined.
64
Equity
A condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it.
65
Self-Disclosure
Revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others.
66
Conflict & Peacemaking
working with each other to overcome problems.
67
Non-zero sum game
both the group participants all gain or suffer together.
68
Social trap
a term used by psychologists to describe a situation in which a group of people act to obtain short-term individual gains, which in the long run leads to a loss for the group as a whole.
69
Mirror-image perceptions
each side views itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other as evil and aggressive.
70
Superordinate goals
shared goals that override differences among people that cannot be achieved without a joint effort.
71
Conciliation (GRIT)
a bargaining strategy used by both sides to help maintain the peace. GRIT stands for Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension reduction. Researchers have found that reciprocal conciliatory acts can begin the process of reducing tensions between hostile groups.
72
Personality
an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.
73
Conscious
thoughts or motives that a person is currently aware of or is remembering.
74
Preconscious
consists of thoughts, motives, and memories that can be voluntarily brought to mind.
75
Unconscious
thoughts, feelings, motives, and memories blocked from conscious awareness. Not directly accessible. Dreams give insight.
76
Id
the part of the mind that is the primal, self-centered, impulsive, irrational drives of the unconscious, it operates on a “pleasure principle” that seeks to achieve immediate gratification and to avoid discomfort.
- instinct, born with this
“I want it right now”
77
Superego
the part of the mind that focuses on how we ought to behave, it provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations. If you do not listen to the superego, your conscience makes you feel guilt, if you do listen to it, you feel pride.
- develops around age of 2
- uses defense mechanisms
“We need to plan and wait in order to have it”
78
Ego
functions as the “executive” and mediates the demands of the id and superego, operates on the Reality Principle.
- develops around age of 5
“You can’t have it, it’s not right”
79
Oedipus complex
during the phallic stage, boys are attracted to their mothers, but afraid of their fathers finding out and castrating them (castration anxiety), therefore, they instead identify with their fathers to keep them close and not discover their real feelings.
80
Electra complex
during the phallic stage, girls are attracted to their fathers, but afraid of their mothers finding out retaliating, therefore, they instead identify with their mothers to keep them close and not discover their real feelings.
81
Identification
children cope with threatening feelings by repressing them and by identifying with the rival parent. Through this process of identification, their superego gains strength that incorporates their parents’ values.
82
Fixate
to be stuck on, focused on. Ex. If someone has an oral fixation, he always needs to have something in his mouth.
83
Defense mechanisms
the ego’s way of distorting reality in order to reduce anxiety
84
what are the defense mechanisms?
Repression
Regression
Rationalization
Projection Denial
Displacement
Reaction Formation
Sublimation
85
Repression
preventing anxiety-producing thoughts, memories, and painful feelings by pushing them into the unconscious. Ex. forgetting the details of what you said when you broke up with your significant other.
86
Regression
retreating from a threatening situation by reverting to a pattern of behavior characteristic of an earlier stage of development. Ex. throwing a temper tantrum when your parents refuse to let you use the car, or a 4-year-old wetting the bed when a new baby joins the family.
- retreating to an earlier stage, where some unconscious energy remains fixated (curling up w a stuffed animal and watching cartoons for comfort)
87
Rationalization
distorting reality in order to justify something that has happened. Ex. not getting into your 1st choice school and saying you didn’t want to go there anyway.
- offering self justyfying explanations in place of the real, more threatening unconscious reasons for one's actions
88
Projection
transferring one’s own unacceptable thoughts, motives, or personal qualities to others. Ex. you feel dislike for a teacher, and then insists that she dislikes you. Little kid saying their stuffed animal is hurt instead of him. They use this with abuse cases. It’s a way of getting kids to talk.
89
Denial
refusing to accept or acknowledge an anxiety producing piece of information. Ex. refusing to admit you have a drinking problem although you can’t make it through the day without a drink.
90
Displacement
redirecting anger and other unacceptable impulses toward a less threatening person or object. Ex. your boss yells at you and you go home and yell at your younger brother.
91
Reaction Formation
thinking or behaving in a way that is the opposite of your own unacceptable thoughts and feelings. Ex. loss of a family member – saying he’s in a better place now. He’s been saved from a bad life on Earth.
92
Sublimation
Diverting unwanted impulses into socially approved thoughts, feelings, or behaviors. Ex. A person with strong feelings of aggression becomes a soldier.
93
Projective tests
a personality test designed to let a person respond to ambiguous stimuli, presumably revealing hidden emotions and internal conflicts.
94
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
a projective test developed by Henry Murray in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.
95
Rorschach Inkblot Test
the most widely used projective test designed by Hermann Rorschach that uses a set of 10 inkblots to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots.
96
Collective unconscious
a common reservoir of images derived from our species’ past, such as love of mother and belief in a supreme being.
97
Archetype
a universally understood symbol. Ex. people picturing a wiseman/sage w/long gray hair and a beard.
98
Freudian slip
when you say one thing, but mean to say another.
99
Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow’s idea that in order for a person to reach his full potential, he must pass through various stages of biological, psychological, and social needs.
100
Self-concept
a set of perceptions and beliefs that individuals have about their own nature and behavior.
101
Unconditional positive regard
showing complete support and acceptance of a person no matter what that person says or does.
102
Self-esteem
how a person views himself, feeling of self-worth
103
Individualism
giving priority to one’s own goals over group goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than a group’s.
104
Collectivism
giving priority to the goals of one’s group and defining one’s identity accordingly.
105
Cardinal trait
one overarching trait that defines a person’s personality and shapes a person’s behavior.
106
Central traits
traits that are at the core of a person, usually 5 – 10. Ex. honesty, out-going, sociable, shy.
107
Secondary traits
traits that are displayed only during certain situations. Ex. laughing inappropriate times.
108
Source traits
the basic dimensions of a person’s personality but you cannot see them. Cattell says there are 16.
109
Surface traits
personality traits you can see by observing a person. Ex. friendly, out-going, shy, etc.
110
Temperament (disposition)
personality traits that are natural
111
Neurotic
emotionally unstable
112
Five Factor Model
the most influential trait approach today that states 5 broad factors lie at the core of personality. (CANOE - Consciousness, Agreeableness, Neuroticism, Openness, Extraversion)
c - organized, responsible and disciplined
a - kind, cooperative and empathetic
n - emotional instability, anxiety, mood swings
o - curiosity and willing to try new things
e - outgoing, sociable, and energetic
113
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, 2nd edition (MMPI-2)
the most commonly used personality inventory used to detect psychological disorders, made up of 567 T/F questions.
114
Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
personality test used for counseling, leadership training, and team-building, labels people as “types” (feeling or thinking) and gives feedback in complimentary terms. Ex. feeling types are told that they are sensitive to values and sympathetic.
115
Self-efficacy
how a person views himself in certain situations, feelings of self-concept or self doubt that people bring to a certain situation.
116
Model of Reciprocal Determinism
interacting influences of behavior, internal cognitive thoughts, and environmental factors.
117
Locus
a person’s sense of personal power
118
Internal locus of control
people accepting responsibility for their life experiences.
119
External locus of control
people who believe that most situations are governed by chance.
120
Defensive self-esteem
blockading yourself from negative influences for the sake of feeling good about yourself. Ex. you exercise to stay in shape because it makes you feel good.
121
Secure self-esteem
enables us to focus beyond ourselves and to deal with things confidently, you can take criticism.
122
James-Lange theory
our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli.
123
Cannon-Bard theory (Thalamic Theory)
an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion.
124
Schachter-Singer theory (Schachter-Two Factor)
to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal.
125
Cognitive-Appraisal Theory
Our emotional experience depends on our interpretation of the
situation we are in.
1. Primary appraisal: appraise a situation of whether or not you want to do something based on the consequences.
2. Secondary appraisal: deciding to do something based on the primary appraisal andyour current emotion.
126
Feel-Good, Do-Good Phenomenon
when we feel happy we are more willing to help others.
127
Well-being
self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of
objective well-being (for example, physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people’s quality of life
128
Tend and befriend
a behavior exhibited by some animals, including humans, when under threat. It refers to protection of offspring (tending) and seeking out the social group for mutual defense (befriending).
129
Adaptation-level phenomenon
our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience.
- what seems "normal" to someone is heavily influenced by their previous level of adaptation
130
Relative deprivation
the perception that we are worse off relative to those with whom we
compare ourselves.
131
Behavioral medicine
an interdisciplinary field that integrates behavior and medical knowledge and applies that knowledge to health and disease.
132
Health Psychology
a subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine.
133
Facial feedback
the effect of facial expressions on experienced emotions, as when a facial
expression of anger or happiness intensifies feelings of anger or happiness.
134
Catharsis
emotional release. The catharsis hypothesis maintains that “releasing’ aggressive
energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges.
- basically venting/ranting
