Unit 2 from Study Guide Flashcards
1
Q
Perception
A
the process of organization and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events.
2
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Perceptual set
A
a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.
3
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Schema
A
Organized bodies of information that are stored in memory which can bias the way new information is interpreted, stored, and recalled.
4
Q
Context effects:
A
describes the influence of environmental factors on one’s perception of a stimulus.
5
Q
two types of context effects
A
- Motivation: our energy working towards a goal can bias our interpretations of neutral stimuli
- Emotion: our feelings can predispose our perceptions
6
Q
Selective attention
A
the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus. Also known as the cocktail party effect.
7
Q
Inattentional blindness
A
failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.
8
Q
Change blindness
A
failing to notice changes in the environment. Ex. The bearded man not noticing that the man giving directions was replaced by someone else after the board passed by.
9
Q
Gestalt
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an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into a meaningful whole.
10
Q
Visual Capture:
A
When competing with the other senses, vision usually wins. We naturally put more attention and energy into vision compared to other senses.
11
Q
Figure-ground
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the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).
12
Q
Grouping
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the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups.
Proximity: We group nearby figures together.
13
Q
Similarity
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We group similar figures together.
14
Q
Continuity
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We perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones.
15
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Connectedness
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: Because they are uniform and linked, we perceive each set of two dots and the line between them as a single unit.
16
Q
Closure
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We fill in gaps to create a complete, whole object.
17
Q
Depth perception
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the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance.
18
Q
Visual cliff
A
a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals
19
Q
Binocular cues
A
depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depends on the use of two eyes. *Remember bi means two so you need 2 eyes for disparity.
20
Q
Monocular cues
A
depth cues that depend on the use of one eye. *Remember mono means one.
21
Q
Retinal disparity
A
a binocular cue for perceiving depth. By comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance – the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.
22
Q
Relative height
A
we perceive objects higher in our field of vision as farther away.
23
Q
Relative size
A
if we assume that two objects are similar in size, most people perceive the one that casts the smaller retinal image as farther away
24
Q
Interposition
A
if one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer
25
Linear perspective
parallel lines, such as railroad tracks appear to converge with distance. The mover they converge, the greater their perceived distance.
26
Relative motion
As we move, objects that are actually stable may appear to move.
27
Light and shadow:
nearby objects reflect more light to our eyes. Thus, given two identical objects, the dimmer one seems farther away. Shading, too, produces a sense of depth consistent with our assumption that light comes from above
28
Phi Phenomenon
an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession, like Christmas lights.
29
Autokinetic effect
illusory movement of a still spot of light in a dark room
30
Perceptual constancy
: perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, lightness, and color) even as illumination and retinal images change.
31
Color constancy
perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object.
32
Perceptual adaptation
in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field. This is usually done with distorting lenses. When the lenses are removed, it takes some time for perception to return to “normal”.
33
Memory
the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.
34
Flashbulb memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event. The memory is as clear as looking at a picture. - very detailed
35
Semantic memory
fact based Jeopardy-like information.
36
Procedural memory
how-to memory. Ex. tying shoes.
37
Episodic memory
memories of certain episodes/events. Ex. vacations, birthdays, holidays, prom, etc. Not every episodic memory is a flashbulb memory, but every flashbulb memory is an episodic memory.
38
Eidetic memory
photographic memory, very rare.
39
Prospective memory
remembering not to forget to do something. Ex. I can’t forget to call my boss later today.
40
Iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second. *Remember: an icon is a picture on your computer, iconic means visual.
41
Echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds *Remember: an echo is a sound.
42
Explicit memory
memories of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare”, such as telling about a vacation or giving directions. Also called declarative memory. Goes through the hippocampus (the part of the limbic system responsible for explicit memories of names, images, and events).
43
Implicit memory
procedural, how-to memory that you don’t have to think about, it’s independent of conscious recollection. Also called nondeclarative or procedural memory. Goes through the cerebellum (the part of the brain that plays an important role in forming and storing implicit memories).
44
three stages of memory in order
encoding, storage, retrieval
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encoding
the processing of information into the memory system.
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storage
the retention of encoded information over time.
47
Retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage.
48
Parallel processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions. We take in a lot of information at the same time, not like a computer in which you can only input one piece of information at a time.
49
Automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as the meanings of words.
50
Shallow processing
encoding the shapes, looks, or surface structure of things, especially words, not the meanings. It is difficult to remember things if it is only shallowly processed.
- focusing on structure of words rather than its meaning
51
Deep processing
encoding something according to its semantics.
52
Semantic encoding
: the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words.
53
Self-referent processing
encoding something based on how it relates to you. This is a type of deep processing.
54
Effortful processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.
55
Rehearsal
the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage.
56
Spacing effect
: the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.
57
Next-in-line effect
a person in a group has diminished recall for the words of others who spoke immediately before or after the person.
58
Serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list.
59
Primacy effect
information at the beginning of a list is remembered better than material in the middle.
60
Recency effect
information at the end of a list is remembered better than the material in the middle.
61
Overlearning
the additional rehearsal of information even after learning material that increases retention.
62
Visual encoding
the encoding of pictures/images.
63
Acoustic encoding
the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words.
64
Mnemonics
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.
65
Method of Loci
a mnemonic that helps people remember things by placing them in a familiar place, such as in your house, on a baseball field, etc.
66
Link method
forming a mental image of items remembered in a way that links them together. Ex. making a story out of items.
67
Hierarchies
a few broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts.
68
Chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units.
69
Acronym
a type of chunking in which a word is made out of the first letters of the to-be-remembered items. Ex. HOMES (the 5 Great Lakes: Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior)
70
Sensory memory
a quick, fleeting memory that is activated by the five senses.
71
Short-term/working memory
activated memory that holds a few items (on the average 7) for a brief time (usually 30 seconds) before the information is stored or forgotten. Located in the frontal lobe.
72
Long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system that includes knowledge, skills and experiences
73
Working memory
a newer understanding of Atkinson and Shiffrin’s second stage of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.
74
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
an increase in a synapses firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be the neural basis for learning and memory.
75
Recall
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.
76
Recognition
a measure of memory in which the person needs to only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.
77
Relearning
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time.
78
Priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory.
79
Retrieval cues
anchor points used to access the information you want to remember later.
80
Déjà vu
the eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.
81
Mood-congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood.
82
State-dependent memory
what we learn in one state may be more easily recalled when we are again in that state, such as being happy or sad.
83
Context-dependent memory
putting yourself back in the context where you experienced something can prime your memory retrieval.
84
Amnesia
the loss of memory.
85
Infantile amnesia
the inability to remember anything before the age of 3.
86
Retrograde amnesia
the inability to remember anything after specific brain surgery or an accident.
87
Anterograde amnesia
the inability to form new memories after specific brain surgery or an accident.
88
Dementia
a loss of brain function that occurs with certain diseases. It affects memory, thinking, language, judgment, and behavior.
89
Alzheimer’s disease
is one form of dementia that gradually gets worse over time. It affects memory, thinking, and behavior. Usually the body “forgets” to work and eventually shuts down.
90
Source amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined; also known as source misattribution. Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories.
91
Dissociative Disorder
Dis-association of memory, sudden unawareness of some aspect of identity or history.
92
Cortisol
“the stress hormone” that is secreted during times of stress, can impact the ability to form memories.
93
Distributed practice
working to retain information over time, not cramming it all in during one session, that produces better long-term recall.
94
Tip-of-the-tongue Phenomenon
knowing the answer but not being able to retrieve it.
95
Proactive interference
the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information; forward-acting.
old information you've learned hinders your ability to remember new information
96
Retroactive interference
the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information; backward-acting.
when new information you learn interferes with your ability to recall older information
97
three signs of forgetting
absent mindeness, transience, blocking
98
absent-mindeness
inattention to details leads to encoding failure (not paying attention to where you put down your keys)
99
transience
storage decay over time (forgetting the names of former classmates)
100
blocking
inaccessibility of stored information (tip of the tongue phenomenon)
101
three signs of distortion
misattribution, suggestibility, bias
102
Misattribution
confusing the source of information (putting words into someone else’s mouth or remembering a dream as an actual happening.)
103
suggestibility
the lingering effects of misinformation (a leading question on the stand in court)
104
Bias
belief-colored recollections (current feelings toward a friend may color our recalled initial feelings)
105
Motivated forgetting
when people unknowingly revise their memories.
106
Repression
a defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.
107
Misinformation effect
incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event.
108
Definitions
some concepts fit into a group because of their definition. Ex. by definition, a triangle has 3 sides
109
Hierarchies
breaking things down from broad to specific. Superordinate (broad category), basic (most common), or subordinate. Ex. Fruit > apple > Granny Smith
110
Prototypes
a mental image of best example of a category. Ex. most people think of a robin, as opposed to a flamingo, when they hear the word “bird”.
111
Schemas
an organized mental framework about a particular topic, event, object, idea, setting, or group of people.
112
Trial and error
just trying any method to solve an answer. Ex. typing in random numbers to figure out a pin number for an ATM card.
113
Means-end analysis
breaking a problem into subgoals in order to reach the ultimate goal. Ex. wanting to run a marathon, but you don’t go out the first day and run 20 miles. You have to start small, set a goal for a 5K, then a 10K, etc.
114
Algorithm
a logical, step-by-step procedure that, if followed correctly, will eventually solve a specific problem. Ex. typing in 0000, 0001, 0002, 0003, etc. to figure out a pin number for an ATM card.
115
Heuristic
a general rule of thumb or shortcut that is used to reduce the number of possible solutions to a problem. Ex. using birthdays for a pin number.
116
Insight
just coming up with the answer, the “aha” moment
117
Fixation
having a preoccupation with something, not being able to stop thinking of it.
118
Mental set
the tendency to continue using belief systems and problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past, even though it may not be working now.
119
Functional fixedness
the tendency to think of an object as functioning only in its usual way or customary way. As a result, individuals often do not see unusual or innovative uses of familiar objects.
By using a dime to screw in a screw, Tom displayed no functional fixedness
a cognitive bias where someone is unable to think of a new use for an object beyond its typical function
120
Availability heuristic
judging the likelihood of an event based on readily available personal experiences or new reports. Ex. not wanting to fly after 9/11.
121
Representative heuristic
judging the likelihood of an event based on how well it matches a typical example. Ex. Not thinking a tall, skinny man who likes to read would be a truck driver.
122
Anchoring effect
the tendency to be influenced by a reference point. Ex. only buying a car because it’s the color you want even though it has a lot of miles.
123
Framing
posing a question or wording a phrase in such a way to persuade someone’s thoughts. Ex. buying something because it’s 95% fat free sounds better than 5% fat.
124
Confirmation bias
a preference for information that confirms preexisting positions or beliefs, while ignoring or discounting contradictory evidence. Ex. only looking at good reviews of something you want.
125
Belief perseverance
holding onto a belief even after its been discredited. Ex. believing that fad diets work.
126
Hindsight bias
also known as the knew-it-all-along effect, the inclination to see events that have already occurred as being more predictable than they were before they took place
127
Overconfidence bias
the tendency to be more confident than correct. Ex. Hitler thinking he could invade Russia when no one else has ever successfully done it.
128
Exaggerated fear
being overly fearful of something to the point of a phobia. Availability heuristic plays a part in this.
129
Reify
to make an abstract concept concrete.
130
g factor
a single, underlying factor that is responsible for a person’s overall intelligence.
131
Factor analysis
A method used to identify clusters of test items that have a common ability. Ex. look at your midterm and pull out all of the questions for neuroscience, states of consciousness, etc.
132
Fluid intelligence
intelligence that includes reasoning abilities, memory, and speed of information processing. ***Declines with age. Think of the difficulty older people have w/technology.
133
Crystallized intelligence
intelligence that is based on life experiences. ***Increases with age.
134
Analytical intelligence
the ability to analyze, evaluate, judge, and compare and contrast.
135
Creative intelligence
the ability to come up with new ideas, hypothesize, theorize, and use divergent thinking.
136
Practical intelligence
the ability to deal with everyday life skills.
137
Multiple intelligences
independent intelligences which include a broad range of skills that go beyond traditional school smarts.
138
Savant Syndrome
: people who have low general intelligence, but who excel in other abilities, such as music, memory, and art.
139
Intrinsic motivation
doing something because you enjoy it.
140
Extrinsic motivation
doing something for rewards or fear of consequences.
141
Emotional intelligence
the ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions, part of social intelligence.
142
Intelligence tests
tests devised to identify a person’s level of intelligence.
143
Psychometrics
performing psychological testing and measuring mental traits, abilities, and processes.
144
Mental age
the age at which someone is mentally, not necessarily how old someone is chronologically.
145
Intelligence quotient
the mathematical formula that was used to determine intelligence scores. Mental age / chronological age x 100.
146
WAIS test
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, the most widely used intelligence test used today.
147
WISC test
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children.
148
Aptitude tests
tests used to predict future performance, such as SATs and LSATs
149
Achievement tests
tests used to measure what was learned, such as SOLs, AP exams, and unit tests.
150
Self-report tests
tests that measure a person’s characteristics and test for disorders, such as the MMPI-2.
151
Standardization
the process of establishing norms, or rules, for a test, based on a bell (normal) curve. ***Remember, 68% of people fall within one standard deviation (15 points) above or below the mean and 95% fall within 2 standard deviations.***
152
Test-retest reliability
comparing participants’ scores on the same test after taking it 2 separate times.
153
Split-half reliability
looking at the degree of similarity between scores on 2 halves of the test. Is the 1st half consistent with the 2nd half? Are the odd and even questions consistent?
154
Equivalent-form Reliability
using an alternative but equivalent test when retesting.
155
Validity
the extent to what test is supposed to measure or predict.
156
Criterion validity
was the subject of the test on what it was supposed to be? Ex. a chemistry test isn’t valid if it asks physics questions.
157
Intellectually disabled
anyone with an intelligence score under 70.
158
Terman’s study
a longitudinal study that tracked the lives of gifted children. The kids achieved a high level of success both in school and work. There were things, however, in which they weren’t successful. Ex. the divorce rate equaled the national average.
159
Self-fulfilling prophecy
when a person’s expectations of another person leads that person to behave in an expected way.
160
Nature vs Nurture views of intelligence
a person’s intelligence is based both on genetic and environmental factors.
161
Perceptual speed
how quickly a person can perceive things, the quicker the perceptual speed, the higher the intelligence.
162
Flynn Effect
intelligence scores have risen 27 points over the last 60 years. Why? Better education, more testing, and availability of technology
- james flynn
163
Head Start
government sponsored preschool for lower income families.
164
With-in group differences
differences between members of the same group (culture, race, ethnicity), usually socio-economic.
165
Between-group differences
differences in intelligence scores between different ethnic and racial groups.
166
Stereotype threat
a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.
