Unit 1 Part 2 Flashcards
1
Q
Consciousness
A
our subjective awareness of ourselves & our environment
2
Q
cognitive neuroscience
A
interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (thinking, knowing, remembering, & communicating)
3
Q
Dual processing
A
principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious & unconscious tracks - affects our perceptions, memory, attitudes, & other cognitions
4
Q
blindsight
A
condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it
5
Q
parallel processing
A
processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem at the same time
6
Q
Sequential processing:
A
processing one aspect of a stimulus or problem at a time; generally used to process new information or solve difficult problems
7
Q
Circadian rhythm
A
our biological clock; regular body rhythms (for example, of temperature & wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle
- our internal clock, controlling our temperature and wakefulness in 24-hour cycles. This rhythm lets us know when we feel tired and sleep
8
Q
Sleep Cycle
A
Cycle through distinct sleep stages every 90 minutes or so while sleeping
9
Q
NREM sleep
A
non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep
10
Q
alpha waves
A
relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state
11
Q
description of NREM (Stage) 1
A
Very brief & light (easy to wake up)
12
Q
Hallucinations
A
- symptom of stage 1
- false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus
13
Q
Hypnagogic sensations
A
- symptom of stage 1
-bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of falling or floating weightlessly, while transitioning to sleep (also called hypnic sensations)
14
Q
description of NREM stage 2
A
Lasts around 20 minutes, deeper than NREM 1 (but can still be awakened easily)
15
Q
Sleep spindles
A
- symptom of stage 2
- bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain-wave activity associated with memory processing
16
Q
NREM stage 3
A
Deep sleep, lasts for roughly 30 minutes, but gets shorter as the night goes on through each cycle
17
Q
delta waves
A
- symptom of stage 3
- large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep
18
Q
REM sleep
A
(rapid eye movement sleep) is the stage of sleep when most dreams occur
19
Q
REM rebound
A
tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation
20
Q
Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
A
pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm; in response to light, the SCN adjusts melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness
21
Q
some functions of sleep
A
- Restores the body and brain
- Consolidates memories
- Feed creative thinking
- Supports growth
- Conserves energy
22
Q
some impacts of sleep loss
A
- Decrease cognitive performance at work and school
- Affect mood - angrier and more conflict prone
- Affects appetite and weight maintenance
- Suppress the immune system
- Slows reaction time
23
Q
Insomnia
A
Recurring problems falling or staying asleep
24
Q
Narcolepsy
A
Sudden sleep attacks where the afflicted lapses directly in REM sleep
- affects the brain’s ability to regulate sleep and wake cycles
- happens usually during day
25
Sleep apnea
Stopping breathing repeatedly while sleeping
26
Sleepwalking (somnambulism)
Repeated episodes of complex motor behavior; happens in NREM 3
27
REM sleep behavior disorder
Acting out the content of dreams
28
Information-processing theory (consolidation theory)
dreams help to process & form our day’s experiences into memories
-When tested the day after learning a task, people who were deprived of sleep did worse than those who had slept undisturbed
-This dream theory states that we dream as a way to process daily events and form memories.
29
Activation-synthesis theory
the brain’s attempt to make sense of random neural activity spreading up from the brainstem; brain “weaves” stories around the random neural activity
- This theory of dreams states that we dream as a way for our brain to make sense of the random neural firings during REM.
30
Physiological function
regular brain stimulation during REM sleep may help develop & preserve neural pathways
31
Cognitive development
dream content often reflects dreamers’ level of cognitive development; dreams simulate our lives
32
Sensation
process by which our sensory receptors & nervous system receive & represent stimulus energies from our environmen
33
Perception
process by which our brain organizes & interprets sensory information, enabling us to recognize objects & events as meaningful
- People with prosopagnosia, their brain can perceive all other aspects - hair, physique, gait - but cannot make sense of the face
34
Top-down processing
information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience & expectations
- using models, ideas, and expectations to interpret sensory information (is this something ive seen before)
- higher-level cognition guides our processing of sensory stimuli. Missing a typo because your brain expects the word to be there, is an example.
35
Bottom-up processing
information processing that begins with the sensory receptors & works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information (also called feature detection)
- taking sensory information then assembling and integrating it (What am I seeing?)
36
Transduction
conversion of one form of energy into another; in sensation, the transforming of physical energy, such as sights, sounds, & smells, into neural impulses the brain can interpret
- the process of converting sensory stimuli into neural impulses.
37
Absolute threshold
minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time
38
Signal detection theory
theory predicting how & when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise); assumes there is no single absolute threshold & that detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, & alertness
- This theory predicts when we will hear weak signals. A new parent sensitive to his child’s cry is a good example of the theory.
39
Subliminal
stimuli that falls below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness
40
Difference threshold
minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time (also known as just noticeable difference [jnd])
41
Weber’s law
principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)
- Percentage varies depends on the stimulus - two objects must differ in weight by 2% to notice a change
42
Sensory adaptation
diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation
- the process where our senses become less sensitive to a constant stimulus over time
- ex. Pool water doesn’t seem so cold after 15 minutes.
43
Wavelength
distance from the peak of one light wave to the peak of the next
44
Hue
dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light (color that we see)
45
what do the three types of wavelengths mean
Short wavelength = high frequency (bluish colors)
Long wavelength = low frequency (reddish colors)
Medium wavelength = medium frequency (greenish colors)
46
Intensity
amount of energy in a light wave or sound wave which influences what we perceive as brightness or loudness
47
Cornea
eye’s clear, protective outer layer, covering the pupil & lens, bends light to help focus
48
Pupil
adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters
49
Iris
ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil & controls the size of the pupil opening (dilates or constricts the pupil to let in more or less light; also responds to mood)
50
Lens
transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina
- This part of the eye focuses incoming images onto the retina through the process of accommodation.
51
Accommodation
process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus images of near or far objects on the retina
52
Retina
light-sensitive back inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods & cones plus layers of neurons that begin the process of visual information
53
Rods
retinal receptors that detect black, white, & gray, & are sensitive to movement; rods are necessary for peripheral & twilight vision, when cones don’t respond, 120 million rods
54
Cones
retinal receptors that are concentrated near the center of the retina & that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions; cones detect fine detail & give rise to color sensations, 6 million cones
- These are the photoreceptors in the retina responsible for processing color.
55
Fovea
central point of focus in the retina, around which cones are clustered
56
Optic nerve
nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
-This part of the eye carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain and has a “blindspot.”
57
Blind spot
point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a “blind” spot because no receptor cells are located there
- Optic nerves cross at the optic chiasm, then pass through the visual area of the thalamus, which projects the messages to the visual cortex of the occipital lobes
58
Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory
theory that the retina contains three different types of color receptors - one most sensitive to red, one to green, & one to blue - which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color (explains color blindness)
59
Opponent-process theory
theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow, & black-white) enable color vision; for example, some cells are stimulated by green & inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red & inhibited by green (explains afterimages)
- we have opposing color receptors in our retinas and the afterimage supports this theory.
- - meaning that when one color is activated, its opposite is suppressed, explaining why we can't see reddish-green or yellowish-blue hues
60
Feature detectors
nerve cells in the brain’s visual cortex that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement
61
Audition
the sense or act of hearing
62
Amplitude
Height of sound waves determines the loudness
63
Frequency
number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second) - measured in hertz, determines the pitch
64
what do the different frequencies mean
- Short waves have high frequency (high-pitched sounds)
- Long waves have low frequency (low-pitched sounds)
65
Malleus/hammer, Anvil/incus, Stirrup/stapes
set of small bones in the middle ear, located between the eardrum & the cochlea, that concentrate the vibrations in the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window
66
inner ear
innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, & vestibular sacs
67
Cochlea
coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid tigger nerve impulses
- The basilar membrane is located in this part of the ear and is responsible for the transduction process.
68
Basilar membrane
located in the cochlea, covered in hair cells (cilia), which bend with vibrations and trigger neural impulses to the auditory nerve
69
Auditory nerve
interconnected axons which carry neural message to the thalamus then to the auditory cortex of the temporal lobes
70
Sensorineural hearing loss
most common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerve; also called nerve deafness
- Cannot be reversed, but hearing can be semi-restored with a cochlear implant
71
Place theory
theory that links the pitch that we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated (also called place coding)
- Place theory explains how we hear high-pitched sounds but not low-pitched
- “We hear different pitches because different sound waves trigger activity at different locations along the cochlea's basilar membrane,” describes which hearing theory?
72
Conduction hearing loss
less common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea (bones of the middle ear)
73
Frequency theory
theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense pitch (also called temporal coding)
- the idea that the pitch of a sound is perceived based on the rate at which neurons fire in the auditory nerve
- meaning the brain interprets pitch by how often nerve impulses are sent
74
Volley theory
neural cells can alternate firing, achieving a combined frequency above 1000 waves per second
75
Touch receptors
theses are sensitive to pressure, warmth, cold, & pain, - other skin sensations are variations of these four touch sensations
76
Gate-control theory
theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain; the “gate” is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers, & is closed by activity in large fibers or by information coming from the brain
- explains whether or not the spinal cord blocks or sends pain signals.
77
Endorphin production (genetic)
people with red hair typically have a higher pain tolerance
78
Phantom limb sensations
brain creates pain when there is a limb missing by misinterpreting & amplifying spontaneous CNS activity
- the sensation or pain that an amputated or missing limb is still attached.
79
Memory of pain
we overlook pain’s duration, but our memory snapshots record pain’s peak moment & how much pain is felt at the end
80
Social-cultural influences
Perceive more pain when others also seem to be experiencing pain
81
Controlling Pain
Placebos can help with pain (expectation of pain relief), distraction can reduce pain (counting backward after getting a shot)
82
Gustation
sense of taste (chemical sense); six taste sensations that have evolutionary benefits
83
benefit of sweet
tells us the food is an energy source
84
benefit of salty
tells us the food has essential sodium
85
benefit of sour
tells us the food is potentially toxic acid
86
benefit of bitter
tells us the food is potentially poisonous
87
benefit of umami
tells us the food has protein to grow & repair tissues
88
benefit of oleogustus
tells us the food has fats for energy, insulation, & cell growth
89
Taste receptors (buds)
reproduce themselves every 1-2 weeks; number of taste buds decrease as you age
90
Olfaction
sense of smell (chemical sense)
91
Olfactory receptors
cells at the top of the nasal cavity, receive stimuli, activate axons traveling to the brain
- Smell is the only sense to bypass the thalamus
- Smell and memory are closely linked due to location of organs in the brain/head
92
Sensory interaction
principle that one sense can influence another, as when smell of food influences taste
- Smell + texture + taste = flavor
93
Kinesthesis
our movement sense; our system for sensing the position & movement of individual body parts, millions of sensors in muscles, tendons, joints all over body called proprioceptors
- allows us to determine the positioning of individual body parts.
94
Vestibular sense
our balance sense; our sense of body movement & position that enables our sense of balance, controlled by semicircular canals and vestibular sacs
95
Embodied cognition
influence of bodily sensations, gestures, & other states on cognitive preferences & judgements
96
Synesthesia
stimulation of one sense triggers an experience with another
Hearing music may trigger a sense of color or taste associated with certain notes
