Unit 2 Flashcards
1
Q
selective attention
A
focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
- we pay attention to what we deem important
2
Q
cocktail party effect
A
ability to pick out one voice within a sea of many
3
Q
inattentional blindness
A
failing to see visible objects when our attention is diverted elsewhere
4
Q
change blindness
A
failing to notice changes in the environment; a type of inattentional blindness
5
Q
Perceptual set
A
mental predisposition to perceive one thing & not another (affects our top-down processing)
6
Q
what are perceptual sets determined by
A
our schemas
7
Q
schemas
A
(concepts that organize & interpret unfamiliar information)
8
Q
Context
A
effect of our environment or surrounding information on perception
9
Q
Motivation
A
our energy working towards a goal can bias our interpretations of neutral stimuli
10
Q
Emotion
A
our feelings can predispose our perceptions
- Hearing sad music can predispose you to perceive a sad meaning in spoken homophonic words (mourning rather than morning, die rather than dye)
11
Q
Gestalt
A
an organized whole
12
Q
Figure-ground
A
organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)
- arrow in fed ex logo
13
Q
Grouping
A
perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups
14
Q
Proximity
A
we group nearby figures together
15
Q
similarity
A
we group objects together based on how similar they are
16
Q
closure
A
we fill in gaps to create a whole object
17
Q
Depth perception
A
ability to see objects in three dimensions; allows us to judge distance
18
Q
Eleanor Gibson & Richard Walk studied what
A
depth perception in infants using a visual cliff - laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants & young animals
19
Q
Binocular cues
A
a depth cue, such as retinal disparity, that depends on the use of two eyes (biological cues) - helps us judge distance of nearby objects
20
Q
Convergence
A
cue to nearby objects’ distance, enabled by the brain combining the two images
21
Q
Retinal disparity
A
cue for perceiving depth; by comparing retinal images from the two eyes, the brain computes distance - the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object
22
Q
Monocular cues
A
depth cue, such as interposition or linear perspective, available to either eye alone (environmental cues) - helps us judge distance of faraway objects
23
Q
Relative clarity
A
nearby objects appear sharp & clear in our vision; faraway objects appear hazy & unclear
24
Q
Relative size
A
if we assume two objects are the same size, one that casts the smaller retinal image is perceived as being further away
25
Linear perspective
parallel lines appear to meet in the distance
26
Interposition
if one object partially blocks our view of another object, we perceive it as closer
27
Stroboscopic motion
illusion of continuous movement (as in a motion picture) experienced when viewing a rapid series of slightly varying still images
- Flip book
28
Phi phenomenon
illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on & off in quick succession
- Christmas lights being timed to music to make it look like they’re moving
29
Autokinetic effect
illusory movement of a still spot of light in a dark room
- Natural eye movements create this illusion
30
Perceptual constancy
perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent color, brightness, shape, & size) even as illumination & retinal images change
31
Color constancy
perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object
32
Brightness/lightness constancy
perceive an object as having consistent brightness even as its illumination varies
Depends on relative luminance - amount of light an object reflects relative to its surroundings (context)
33
shape constancy
- perceive the form of familiar objects, such as a door, as constant even while our retinas receive changing images of them
34
Size constancy
perceive an object as having unchanging size, even while our distance from it varies
35
Perceptual adaptation
ability to adjust to changed sensory input, including an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field
- We will adapt to glasses that flip everything upside or shift everything right or left
36
Cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, & communicating
37
Metacognition
“beyond cognition”; thinking about our thinking
- Planning & assessing our understanding & performance
38
Concepts
mental grouping of similar objects, ideas, events, or people
- The concept of ball contains many items - basketball, football, soccer ball, tennis ball, etc. - all for playing different games
39
Prototypes
a mental image or best example of a category; contains all aspects of a concept
40
Assimilation
interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas
- The young child may refer to a cat as a “doggie,” because it is an animal & has four legs
41
Accommodation
adapting our current schemas (understandings) to incorporate new information
42
Convergent thinking
narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the best solution, typically one right answer
43
Divergent thinking
expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions
44
Five components to creativity
Expertise- the more we know about a topic, the more creative we can be with it
Imaginative thinking skills - ability to see things in novel ways
Venturesome personality - seeking new experiences, tolerating ambiguity & risk, & persevering in overcoming challenges
Intrinsic motivation - being driven by interest rather than external reward
creative environment - ability to brainstorm & bounce ideas off others can help creative thought
45
Executive functions
cognitive skills that work together, enabling us to generate, organize, plan, & implement goal-directed behavior
46
Algorithms
methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem; time consuming
- forgetting password for a lock, you go through every possible combination
47
Heuristics
simple thinking strategy - a mental shortcut - that often allows us to make judgments & solve problems efficiently; usually a speedier but also more error-prone
48
Insight
a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions
- Aha! Moment
49
Confirmation bias
tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions & to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
50
Fixation
the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to problem solving
51
Mental set
type of fixation; tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
52
Intuition
an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning (“gut feeling”)
53
Representativeness heuristic
judging the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information
54
Gambler’s fallacy
if you flip a coin & it lands on heads 6 times in row, we incorrectly assume that there is a higher likelihood of it landing on tails next time
55
Availability heuristic
judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory
56
Overconfidence
tendency to be more confident than correct - to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs & judgments
57
Planning fallacy
underestimating the amount of time that it will take to complete a task
58
Belief perseverance
persistence of one’s initial conceptions even after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited (often aided by confirmation bias)
59
Framing
the way as issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions & judgments
60
Ebbinghaus’ Retention Curve
The more you practice information on Day 1, the less you have to practice on Day 2 to recall information
61
Encoding
process of getting information into the memory system; for instance, by extracting meaning
62
Storage
process of retaining encoded information over time
63
Retrieval
process of getting information out of the memory storage
64
encoding, storage, and retrieval are all examples of what
information-processing models
65
parallel processing
processing multiple aspects of stimulus or problem simultaneously
66
Three-stage multi-store model (Richard Atkinson & Richard Shiffrin):
- sensory memory
- Short-term memory
-Long-term memory
67
sensory memory
immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
68
short term memory
briefly activated memory of a few items (such as digits of a phone number while calling) that is later stored or forgotten (7 +/- 2)
- Needs to be rehearsed to be stored in long-term memory
69
long term memory
relatively permanent & limitless archive of the memory system; includes knowledge, skills, & experiences
- Can be retrieved into conscious working memory
70
Working memory
newer understanding of short-term memory; conscious, active processing of both (1) incoming sensory information & (2) information retrieved from long-term memory
71
Central executive
memory component that coordinates the activities on the phonological loop & visuospatial sketchpad
72
Phonological loop
memory component that briefly holds auditory information in short-term memory
- Repeating a phone number before entering it into your contacts
73
Visuospatial sketchpad
memory component that briefly holds information about objects’ appearance & location in space
- Remembering where you parked your car
74
Neurogenesis
the formation of new neurons
75
Long-term potential (LTP)
an increase in a nerve cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural, biological basis for learning & memory
76
Explicit memory
retention of facts & experiences that we can consciously know & “declare” (also called declarative memory)
77
effortful processing
encoding that requires attention & conscious effort
78
Implicit memory
retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection (also called nondeclarative memory)
79
Implicit memories include:
- Procedural memory for automatic skills (such as how to ride a bike)
- Classically conditioned associations among stimuli (such as automatically tensing up around a dog 10 years after you were bitten by a dog)
80
Without conscious effort, we also automatically process:
- Space - while studying, you often encode the place on the page where certain information appears; later, you may visualize its location
- Time - we unintentionally note the sequence of events during your day
- Frequency - we effortlessly keep track of the amount of times things happen, such as seeing someone
81
Dual-track mind
one track automatically encodes routine details, while the other track is free to focus on conscious, effortful processing
82
Sensory memory
feeds our active working memory, recording momentary images, sounds, & strong scents - but it is very quick
83
Iconic memory
momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
84
Echoic memory
momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds & words can still be recalled with 3 or 4 seconds
85
Chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
86
Mnemonics
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery & organizational devices
87
Peg-word system
visually associate a “peg-word” with the to-be-remembered item
- “One is bun, two is shoe, three is tree, etc.”
88
Method of loci
put something to be remembered in a well known location
- Grocery list - Bananas on the stairs, milk in the mailbox, etc.
89
Acronyms (chunking + mnemonic)
Great Lakes acronym - HOMES (Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior)
90
Hierarchies
broad categories divided & subdivided into narrower concepts & facts - helps us retrieve information easier
- USA -> Midwest -> Upper Midwest -> Minnesota -> Maple Grove
91
Spacing effect
tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through mass studying or practice
92
Massed practice
= cramming
93
Testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information; also referred to as retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning
94
Shallow processing
encoding on a basic level, based on the structure, appearance, or sound of a word
- If you are flashed the word “CHAIR”:
- Is the word in capital letters? Structural encoding (letters)
- Does the word rhyme with hair? Phonemic encoding (sound)
95
Deep processing
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention
If you are flashed the word “puzzle”:
Would the word fit in this sentence? “The girl put the ________ on the table.” Semantic encoding (meaning)
96
Self-reference effect
tendency to remember information when it is associated with yourself
97
Retaining Information in the Brain
- Long-term memory considered to be unlimited in capacity
- long-term memory not stored in discrete, precise locations (like a library)
98
Semantic memory
explicit memory of facts & general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is episodic memory)
99
Episodic memory
explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is semantic memory)
100
Frontal lobes & hippocampus dedicated to explicit memory formation & storage
101
Memory consolidation
the neural storage of a long-term memory
102
Cerebellum
forming & storing implicit memories created by classical conditioning
103
Basal ganglia
formation of our procedural memories for skills
- Riding a bike
104
Infantile amnesia
loss of conscious memory from before the age of 4 - but nonconscious implicit memories are still stored
105
Flashbulb memory
clear, often photographic, memory of an emotionally significant event (can be global or personal)
106
Retrieval Cues
Memories are held in storage by a web of associations, certain words or experiences can bring memories out of storage
107
Retrospective memory
retrieving memories from our past
108
Prospective memory
remembering what you need to do in the future
- Send a letter
109
Priming
activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations of memory
- Adults & children primed with money-related words become less helpful - money may prime materialism & self-interest
110
Context-dependent memory
memories that are linked to the surrounding environment (cues that we associate with the context)
- Scuba divers who learned a list of words underwater had better recall of those words when they were again underwater
111
State-dependent memory
what we learn in one state may be more easily recalled when we are again in that state
- If you put your keys somewhere while drunk & can’t remember where they are the next morning, you may recall slightly better if you get drunk again
112
Mood-congruent memory
tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood
- People predisposed to depression more likely to recall sad memories
113
Serial position effect
tendency to recall best the last items in a list (recency effect) & the first items in a list (primacy effect) after a delay
114
Metacognition
students who monitor & evaluate their learning perform better academically
- To improve your grades, it helps to figure out what you don’t know
115
Testing effect
repeated self-testing & rehearsal of previously learned material leads to better retention & retrieval than simply rereading material
- Frequent quizzing & self-testing boosts students’ retention
116
