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AP Psychology > Unit 4 > Flashcards

Unit 4 Flashcards

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1
Q

sensation

A

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

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2
Q

perception

A

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

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3
Q

bottom-up processing

A

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information

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4
Q

top-down processing

A

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experiences and expectations

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5
Q

selective attention

A

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.

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6
Q

in-attentional blindness

A

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

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7
Q

change blindness

A

failing to notice changes in the environment.

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8
Q

transduction

A

conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret.

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9
Q

psychophysics

A

the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them.

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10
Q

absolute threshold

A

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time.

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11
Q

signal detection theory

A

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus and background stimulation. Assumes that there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.

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12
Q

subliminal

A

below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness

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13
Q

priming

A

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response.

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14
Q

difference threshold

A

the minimum difference between the two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time.

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15
Q

Weber’s law

A

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage.

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16
Q

Sensory adaptation

A

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.

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17
Q

perceptual set

A

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

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18
Q

wavelength

A

the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission.

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19
Q

hue

A

the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth.

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20
Q

intensity

A

the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave’s amplitude.

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21
Q

pupil

A

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

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22
Q

iris

A

a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening.

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23
Q

lens

A

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina.

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24
Q

retina

A

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information.

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25
Q

accommodation

A

the process by which the eye’s lens change shape to focus near or far objects on the retina.

26
Q

rods

A

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray: necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don’t respond.

27
Q

cones

A

retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

28
Q

Optic Nerve

A

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.

29
Q

Blind Spot

A

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a “blind” spot because no receptor cells are located there.

30
Q

fovea

A

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster.

31
Q

feature detectors

A

nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement.

32
Q

parallel processing

A

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

33
Q

Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory

A

the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors-one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue-which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.

34
Q

opponent-process theory

A

the theory that opposing retinal processes(red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green.

35
Q

gestalt

A

an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.

36
Q

figure-ground

A

the organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings.

37
Q

grouping

A

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups.

38
Q

depth perception

A

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance.

39
Q

visual cliff

A

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

40
Q

binocular cues

A

depth cues, such as retinal disparity, the use of two eyes.

41
Q

retinal disparity

A

a binocular cue for perceiving depth: By comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance-the greater the disparty (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.

42
Q

monocular cues

A

depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone.

43
Q

phi phenomenon

A

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession.

44
Q

perceptual constancy

A

perceiving objects as unchanging(having consistent shapes, size, brightness, and color) even as illumination and retinal images change.

45
Q

color constancy

A

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object.

46
Q

perceptual adaptation

A

in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field.

47
Q

audition

A

the sense or act of hearing.

48
Q

frequency

A

the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time

49
Q

pitch

A

a tone’s experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency

50
Q

middle ear

A

the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window.

51
Q

cochlea

A

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses

52
Q

inner ear

A

the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.

53
Q

sensorineural hearing loss

A

hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness.

54
Q

conduction hearing loss

A

hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.

55
Q

cochlear implant

A

a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea.

56
Q

place theory

A

in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated.

57
Q

frequency theory

A

in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch.

58
Q

gate-control theory

A

the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The “gate” is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.

59
Q

kinesthesia

A

the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts

60
Q

vestibular sense

A

the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance

61
Q

sensory interaction

A

the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste.

62
Q

embodied cognition

A

in psychological science, the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgements.

AP Psychology (8 decks)

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