Unit 6

Question 1

learning

Answer 1

the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

Question 2

habituation

Answer 2

an organism’s decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it

Question 3

associative learning

Answer 3

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli or a response and its consequences

Question 4

stimulus

Answer 4

any event or situation that evokes a response

Question 4

cognitive learning

Answer 4

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or language

Question 5

classical conditioning

Answer 5

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

Question 6

behaviorism

Answer 6

the view that psychology 1. should be an objective science that 2. studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with 1. but not with 2.

Question 6

neutral stimulus

Answer 6

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.

Question 7

unconditioned response

Answer 7

in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occuring response to an unconditioned stimulus

Question 8

unconditioned stimulus

Answer 8

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally-naturally and automatically- triggers a response.

Question 9

conditioned response

Answer 9

in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

Question 10

conditioned stimulus

Answer 10

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response.

Question 11

acquisition

Answer 11

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

Question 12

higher-order conditioning

Answer 12

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker ) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicted the tone and begin responding to the light alone.

Question 13

extinction

Answer 13

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

Question 14

spontaneous recovery

Answer 14

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

Question 15

generalization

Answer 15

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

Question 16

operant conditioning

Answer 16

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

Question 17

law of effect

Answer 17

Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

Question 18

operant chamber

Answer 18

in operant conditioning research, a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

Question 19

reinforcement

Answer 19

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

Question 20

shaping

Answer 20

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

Question 21

discriminative stimulus

Answer 21

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement

Question 22

positive reinforcement

Answer 22

increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

Question 23

negative reinforcement

Answer 23

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. a negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response.

Question 24

primary reinforcer

Answer 24

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.

Question 25

conditioned reinforcer

Answer 25

a stimulus that gains it reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer.

Question 26

reinforcement schedule

Answer 26

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.

Question 27

continuous reinforcement

Answer 27

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

Question 28

partial reinforcement

Answer 28

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

Question 29

fixed-ratio schedule

Answer 29

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

Question 30

variable-ratio schedule

Answer 30

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

Question 31

fixed-interval schedule

Answer 31

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

Question 32

variable-interval schedule

Answer 32

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

Question 33

punishment

Answer 33

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows

Question 34

biofeedback

Answer 34

a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension

Question 35

respondent behavior

Answer 35

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

Question 36

operant behavior

Answer 36

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

Question 37

cognitive map

Answer 37

a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

Question 38

latent learning

Answer 38

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

Question 39

insight

Answer 39

a sudden realization of a problem’s solution

Question 40

intrinsic motivation

Answer 40

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.

Question 41

extrinsic motivation

Answer 41

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

Question 42

coping

Answer 42

alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavior methods

Question 43

problem-focused coping

Answer 43

attempting to alleviate stress directly-by challenging the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor

Question 44

emotion-focused coping

Answer 44

attempting to alleviate the stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one’s stress reaction

Question 45

learned helplessness

Answer 45

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

Question 46

external locus of control

Answer 46

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate.

Question 47

internal locus of control

Answer 47

the perception that you control your own fate

Question 48

self-control

Answer 48

the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards

Question 49

observational learning

Answer 49

learning by observing others

Question 50

modeling

Answer 50

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Question 51

mirror neurons

Answer 51

frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy.

Question 52

prosocial behavior

Answer 52

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.