Unit 3: Urinary, Homeostasis, Male & Female Reproductive Systems Flashcards
2 methods of autoregulation
- List
- Myogenic mechanism
- Tubuloglomerular feedback
A patient enters a hospital after a motorcycle accident. He complains of mid-back pain. X-rays reveal both rib and pelvic fractures. His emergency room examination includes urinalysis.
What finding from the urinalysis would most likely suggest trauma to the kidneys from the accident, but not to the urinary bladder?
Albuminuria & phenylketonuria
Accessory glands in male reproductive system
- List & describe
- Bulbourethral (Cowper) glands: protects the sperm by neutralizing the acidity of residual urine in the urethra
- Prostate gland: thin milky secretion forms 30% of semen
- Seminal vesicles: forms 60% of semen
Mechanisms the body uses to help maintain acid-base balance
- List 3
- Buffer systems
- Exhalation of CO2
- Kidney excretion of H+
Acid-base imbalances
- Normal pH range
- Describe conditions above & below normal range
- Normal pH range of arterial blood 7.35-7.45
- < 7.35 acidosis: depression of synaptic transmission in CNS
- > 7.45 alkalosis: over-excitability of CNS and peripheral nerves
Adolescence
- Period of time it occurs
- The period from the onset of gonadotropin secretion and reproductive development to when a person attains full adult height
After puberty, the vaginal lining goes through metaplasia transforming from simple cuboidal epithelium to _______ epithelium.
Stratified squamous
At what week is a fetus fully developed?
Week 38
Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH)
- Noncancerous enlargement of the prostate
- Compresses urethra and obstructs flow of urine
- Promotes bladder and kidney infections
Blood plasma is filter in the _____
Renal copuscle
Where & when do mammary glands develop?
- Within the breast during pregnancy
- Remains active in the lactating breast
- Atrophies when a woman ceases to nurse
Breast cancer
- Frequency
- Where do tumors begin
- Symptoms
- Causes
- Risk factors
- 1 out of 8 American women
- Tumors begin with cells from mammary ducts
- may metastasize by lymphatics
- Symptoms may include palpable lump, skin puckering, skin texture and drainage from nipple
- Most breast cancer is nonhereditary
- some stimulated by estrogen
- BRCA1 and BRCA2 (BReast CAncer)
- Risk factors
- aging
- ionizing radiation
- carcinogenic chemicals
- alcohol
- smoking
- fat intake
- 70% lack risk factors
Buffer systems
- What do they do?
- What do they typically consist of?
- Temporarily bind H+
- Raise pH
- Typically consist of weak acid. Salt of the acid functions as a weak base
By what week are either male or female genitalia distinctly formed?
Week 12
How is the sex of a child determined?
- Type of sperm that fertilizes
mother’s egg- X-carrying sperm fertilizes the egg: female
- Y-carrying sperm fertilizes the egg: male
Circumcision is a common surgery in which a male has _________ removed from his penis
Prepuce (foreskin)
Define metabolic waste
Waste substance produced by the body
Define waste
Any substance that is useless to the body or present in excess of the body’s needs
Dehydration
- When does it occur
- What does it result in
- What thirst center does it stimulate
- Occurs when water loss is greater than gain
- Decrease in volume = increase in osmolarity of body fluids
- Stimulates thirst center in hypothalamus
Describe cervical cancer
- When does it typically develop?
- Risk factors
- Where does it usually develop?
- Common among women ages 30 to 50
- Smoking, early-age sexual activity, STDs, and human papillomavirus
- Usually begins in epithelial cells of lower cervix
Describe meiosis
A type of cell division that reduces the number of chromosomes in the parent cell by half and produces four gamete cells
Does the vagina have any glands?
No
Ductus deferens
- Spermatic duct
- Peristalsis during orgasm
Efferent ductules
- Spermatic duct
- 12 small ciliated ducts collecting sperm from rete testes and transporting it to epididymis
Ejaculatory duct
- Spermatic duct
- Formed from ductus deferens and seminal vesicle and passing through prostate to empty into urethra
What regulates the male reproductive function?
- Gonads
- Hypothalamus
- Pituitary gland
What endocrine hormone controls puberty?
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
Epididymis
- Spermatic duct
- Posterior of testis
- Site of sperm maturation and storage (fertile for 60 days)
- Head, body and tail
Epithelium cells of the vagina
- In children
- At puberty
- Child: simple cuboidal
- Puberty: stratified squamous
Erectile dysfunction
- % of occurrence during 60s and 80s
- 20% of men in 60s
- 50% of those in 80s
Exhalation of carbon dioxide (CO2)
- How does it impact pH and fluids
- What is it called
- What type of feedback loop is it
- Increase in CO2 lowers pH of body fluids
- Because H2CO3 can be eliminated by exhaling CO2 it is called a volatile acid
- Negative feedback loop
Why do the testes reside in the scrotum?
- They have adapted to its cooler environment
- Its temperature must be held at about 35°C because it cannot produce sperm at core body temperature of 37°C
External genitalia of females
- Clitoris
- Labia majora
- Labia minora
External genitalia of males
- What does it include?
- What does it occupy?
- Where is it bordered by?
- Scrotum and penis
- Occupies the perineum
- Bordered by the pubic symphysis, ischial tuberosities, and coccyx
Extracellular fluid (ECF)
- Describe
- Where is ECF in the body
- Fluid that is outside of the cells (35%)
- 25% is interstitial fluid between cells (where most ECF resides)
- 20% plasma in blood
- 2% in lymph, cerebrospinal fluid, synovial fluid, aqueous humor, vitreous body, endolymph, perilymph, and pleural, pericardial, and peritoneal fluids
Female reproductive system
- Form & function
- Copulatory organ
- Produces eggs, receives sperm, provides for the union of the gametes, harbors the fetus, and nourishes the offspring
- Females have a copulatory organ (vagina) for receiving the sperm
Filtration membrane
- List & describe the 3 barriers through which fluid passes
- Basement membrane
- Fenestrated endothelium of glomerular capillaries
-
Filtration slits
- Podocyte cell extensions (pedicels) wrap around the capillaries to form a barrier layer with 30 nm filtration slits
Flow of fluid from the point where the glomerular filtrate is formed to the point where urine leaves the body
glomerular capsule → proximal convoluted tubule → nephron loop → distal convoluted tubule → collecting duct → papillary duct → minor calyx → major calyx → renal pelvis → ureter → urinary bladder → urethra
Formula for ECF lowering pH by releasing H+
- CO2 + H2O ⇢ H2CO3 ⇢ HCO3− + H+
Formula for ECF raising pH by binding H+
- CO2 + H2O ⇠ H2CO3 ⇠ HCO3− + H+
Function of the uterus
- Expels the fetus
- Harbors fetus
- Source of nutrition
Gametes
- What are they?
- What does each gamete do?
- Sex cells
- Male & female gametes combine their genes to form a zygote
- One gamete has motility: sperm (spermatozoon)
- Parent with a Y chromosome is male
- Other gamete contains nutrients for developing embryo: egg (ovum)
- Anyone lacking a Y chromosome is female
- In mammals, female is the parent that provides a sheltered internal environment and prenatal nutrition of the embryo
- One gamete has motility: sperm (spermatozoon)
Where do the gonads develop?
Where do they migrate to?
- Male and female gonads initially develop testosterone high in the abdominal cavity near the kidneys
- Migrate into the pelvic cavity (ovaries) or scrotum (testes)
Gonads
- When do they develop
- List & describe its 2 ducts
- Begin to develop at 6 weeks
- 2 sets of ducts
- mesonephric ducts develop into male reproductive system; or
- paramesonephric ducts (müllerian ducts) develop into female reproductive tract
Gubernaculum
- What is it
- Where is it
- Connective tissue cord that extends from the gonads to the floor of the pelvic cavity
- Passes between the internal and external abdominal oblique muscles into the scrotal swelling
How does the body gain water?
- Ingestion of liquids and moist foods (2300mL/day)
- Metabolic synthesis of water during cellular respiration and dehydration synthesis (200mL/day)
How does the body lose water?
- List the different ways
- Evaporation from skin (600mL/day)
- Exhalation from lungs (300mL/day)
- Feces (100mL/day)
- Kidneys (1500mL/day)
How do the kidneys excrete excess water?
- dilute urine
- excess electrolytes through concentrated urine
How does continual exchange of water and solutes occur among internal compartments?
- Diffusion
- Filtration
- Osmosis
- Reabsorption
How does the body regulate water & solute loss?
- Urine
How does the body regulate water gain?
- Water intake (how much you drink)
How is estrogen secreted before, during, and after pregnancy?
- Before: ovarian follicles
- During: placenta
- After: corpus luteum
How is milk ejection (letdown) controlled?
Neuroendocrine reflex
How is the uterus positioned in the body?
- Tilts forward over the urinary bladder
How is urea formed?
- Proteins ⇢ amino acids ⇢ NH2 removed to form ammonia
- liver then converts to urea
How many pairs of autosomes do our cells contain?
22 pairs; 44 total autosomes
(chromosomes 1-22)
How many pairs of chromosomes do our cells contain?
- 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 total chromosomes)
- All eggs carry the X chromosome
- Males produce half Y-carrying sperm and half X-carrying sperm
- 1 pair of sex chromosomes (XY males: XX females)
Identify A
Kidney
Identify B
Ureter
Identify C
Urinary bladder
Identify the clitoris, mons pubis, labia minora, & vagina orifice
Identify the following: uterus, uterine tubes, bladder & ovary
Infant’s suckling stimulates sensory receptors in the nipple, signaling ____ and ____ to release ____
- Hypothalamus
- Posterior pituitary
- Oxytocin
Intracellular fluid (ICF)
- Describe
- Fluid that is inside the cells (65%)
- About ⅔ of body fluid
Kidney infections & trauma
- List & describe
- Hematuria: presence of blood in the urine
- Proteinuria (albuminuria): presence of protein in urine
- Note
- Distance runners and swimmers often experience temporary proteinuria or hematuria
- Prolonged, strenuous exercise greatly reduces profusion of kidney
- Glomerulus deteriorates under prolonged hypoxia
- Prolonged, strenuous exercise greatly reduces profusion of kidney
- Distance runners and swimmers often experience temporary proteinuria or hematuria
How does blood enter and leave the kidney structure?
- Enters the kidney through the renal artery
- Leaves through the renal vein
List & describe layers of the uterine wall
-
Endometrium: inside lining
- site of attachment of the embryo
- forms the maternal part of the placenta from which the fetus is nourished
- Myometrium: middle muscular layer
- Perimetrium: external serosa layer
List & describe endometrium cells
- Simple columnar epithelium with thick layer compound tubular glands
- stratum functionalis: superficial, shed each period
- stratum basalis: deep layer, regenerates a new stratum functionalis with each menstrual cycle
List & describe the 3 protective connective tissue coverings of the kidneys?
- Fibrous capsule: encloses kidney protecting it from trauma and infection
- Perirenal fat capsule: cushions kidney and holds it into place
- Renal fascia: binds it to abdominal wall (deep to parietal peritoneum)
List & describe the cells in the distal convoluted tubule (DCT) and collecting duct
-
Intercalated cells
- Involved in acid–base balance by secreting H+ into tubule lumen and reabsorbing K+
-
Principal cells
- Most numerous
- Have receptors for hormones
- Involved in salt and water balance
List & describe the major portions of the uterine fallopian tubes
- Ampulla: middle and longest part (most important part!)
- Fimbriae: feathery projections on infundibulum
- Infundibulum: flared, trumpet-shaped distal (ovarian) end
- Isthmus: narrower end toward uterus
- Mesosalpinx: the superior portion of the broad ligament that enfolds uterine tube
List the spermatic ducts
- Ductus deferens
- Efferent ductules
- Ejaculatory duct
- Epididymis
List and describe the spermatozoon regions
- Midpiece: contains mitochondria around axoneme of the flagella (produce ATP for flagellar movement)
- Principal piece: axoneme surrounded by fibers
- Endpiece: very narrow tip of flagella
List and describe the stages of labor
- Dilation: longest stage
- Expulsion: active labor
- Placental: baby has arrived, but still bearing down to remove placenta
List internal genitalia of females
- Ovaries
- Uterine tubes
- Uterus
- Vagina
List the 3 regions of the uterus
- Body
- Cervix
- Fundus
List the 3 types of homeostatic balance
- Acid-bace balance
- Electrolyte balance
- Water balance
List the cations & anions of ECF & ICF
-
ECF
- cation = Na+
- anion = Cl-
-
ICF
- cation = K+
- anions = proteins and phosphates (HPO42-)
List the hormones with the strongest influence on pregnancy
- Estrogen
- Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) - used for pregnancy tests
- Human chorionic somatomammotropin (HCS)
- Progesterone
List the phases of meiosis (in order)
- Interphase
- Prophase
- Metaphase
- Anaphase
- Telophase
- Cytokenisis
List the systems that maintain homeostatic balances
- cardiovascular
- digestive
- endocrine
- integumentary
- lymphatic
- nervous
- respiratory
- urinary
Magnesium
- Describe
- Constitution
- 2nd most common intracellular cation
- Cofactor for certain enzymes and Na+/K+ pump
- Essential for normal neuromuscular activity, synaptic transmission, and myocardial function
- Secretion of parathyroid hormone depends on Mg2+
- Regulated in blood plasma by varying rate excreted in urine
- Constitution
- 54% is part of bone as magnesium salts
- 46% as Mg2+ in ICF (45%) or ECF (1%)
Male climacteric (menopause)
- What causes it?
- When?
- Rise in follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and lutenizing hormone (LH) secretion after age 50 produces male climacteric (menopause)
- mood changes, hot flashes and “illusions of suffocation”
Male reproductive system
- Function
- Copulatory organ
- Serves to produce sperm and introduce them into the female body
- Males have a copulatory organ (penis) for introducing their gametes into the female reproductive tract
What is the end result of meiosis?
- Produces 4 gametes (haploid cells), each with only half the DNA of the diploid body cells
- Combining male and female gametes with half the genetic material produces an embryo with the same number of chromosomes as each of the parents
- Sometimes called reduction division
Meiosis I: Anaphase I
- Homologous chromosomes separate and migrate to opposite poles of the cell
Meiosis I: Telophase I
- New nuclear envelopes form around chromosomes
- Cell undergoes cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis)
- Each cell is now haploid
Meiosis II: Anaphase II
- Centromeres divide
- Sister chromatids migrate to opposite poles of cell
- Each chromatid now constitutes a single-stranded chromosome
Meiosis II: Metaphase II
- Chromosomes align on equatorial plane
Meiosis II: Prophase II
- Nuclear envelopes disintegrate again
- Chromosomes still consist of 2 chromatids
- New spindle forms
Meiosis II: Telophase II
- New nuclear envelopes form around chromosomes
- Chromosomes uncoil and become less visible
- Cytoplasm divides
Meiosis I: Metaphase I
- Tetrads align on equatorial plane of cell with centromeres attached to spindle fibers
Meiosis I: Early & Mid-to-Late Prophase
-
Early prophase 1
- Chromatin condenses to form visible chromosomes
- Each chromosome has 2 chromatids joined by a centromere
-
Mid-to-late prophase I
- Homologous chromosomes form pairs (tetrads)
- Chromatids often break and exchange segments (crossing-over)
- Centrioles produce spindle fibers
- Nuclear envelope disintegrates
Menarche
- First menstrual period
- requires at least 17% body fat in teenagers, 22% in adults
- leptin stimulates gonadotropin secretion
- improved nutrition (increased body fat) has lowered avg age of onset to 12
- requires at least 17% body fat in teenagers, 22% in adults