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BIO 151 A&P II > Unit 3: Urinary, Homeostasis, Male & Female Reproductive Systems > Flashcards

Unit 3: Urinary, Homeostasis, Male & Female Reproductive Systems Flashcards

1
Q

2 methods of autoregulation

  • List
A
  • Myogenic mechanism
  • Tubuloglomerular feedback
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2
Q

A patient enters a hospital after a motorcycle accident. He complains of mid-back pain. X-rays reveal both rib and pelvic fractures. His emergency room examination includes urinalysis.

What finding from the urinalysis would most likely suggest trauma to the kidneys from the accident, but not to the urinary bladder?

A

Albuminuria & phenylketonuria

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3
Q

Accessory glands in male reproductive system

  • List & describe
A
  • Bulbourethral (Cowper) glands: protects the sperm by neutralizing the acidity of residual urine in the urethra
  • Prostate gland: thin milky secretion forms 30% of semen
  • Seminal vesicles: forms 60% of semen
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4
Q

Mechanisms the body uses to help maintain acid-base balance

  • List 3
A
  • Buffer systems
  • Exhalation of CO2
  • Kidney excretion of H+
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5
Q

Acid-base imbalances

  • Normal pH range
  • Describe conditions above & below normal range
A
  • Normal pH range of arterial blood 7.35-7.45
    • < 7.35 acidosis: depression of synaptic transmission in CNS
    • > 7.45 alkalosis: over-excitability of CNS and peripheral nerves
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6
Q

Adolescence

  • Period of time it occurs
A
  • The period from the onset of gonadotropin secretion and reproductive development to when a person attains full adult height
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7
Q

After puberty, the vaginal lining goes through metaplasia transforming from simple cuboidal epithelium to _______ epithelium.

A

Stratified squamous

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8
Q

At what week is a fetus fully developed?

A

Week 38

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9
Q

Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH)

A
  • Noncancerous enlargement of the prostate
    • Compresses urethra and obstructs flow of urine
    • Promotes bladder and kidney infections
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10
Q

Blood plasma is filter in the _____

A

Renal copuscle

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11
Q

Where & when do mammary glands develop?

A
  • Within the breast during pregnancy
    • Remains active in the lactating breast
    • Atrophies when a woman ceases to nurse
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12
Q

Breast cancer

  • Frequency
  • Where do tumors begin
  • Symptoms
  • Causes
  • Risk factors
A
  • 1 out of 8 American women
  • Tumors begin with cells from mammary ducts
    • may metastasize by lymphatics
  • Symptoms may include palpable lump, skin puckering, skin texture and drainage from nipple
  • Most breast cancer is nonhereditary
    • some stimulated by estrogen
    • BRCA1 and BRCA2 (BReast CAncer)
  • Risk factors
    • aging
    • ionizing radiation
    • carcinogenic chemicals
    • alcohol
    • smoking
    • fat intake
    • 70% lack risk factors
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13
Q

Buffer systems

  • What do they do?
  • What do they typically consist of?
A
  • Temporarily bind H+
  • Raise pH
  • Typically consist of weak acid. Salt of the acid functions as a weak base
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14
Q

By what week are either male or female genitalia distinctly formed?

A

Week 12

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15
Q

How is the sex of a child determined?

A
  • Type of sperm that fertilizes
    mother’s egg
    • X-carrying sperm fertilizes the egg: female
    • Y-carrying sperm fertilizes the egg: male
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16
Q

Circumcision is a common surgery in which a male has _________ removed from his penis

A

Prepuce (foreskin)

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17
Q

Define metabolic waste

A

Waste substance produced by the body

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18
Q

Define waste

A

Any substance that is useless to the body or present in excess of the body’s needs

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19
Q

Dehydration

  • When does it occur
  • What does it result in
  • What thirst center does it stimulate
A
  • Occurs when water loss is greater than gain
  • Decrease in volume = increase in osmolarity of body fluids
  • Stimulates thirst center in hypothalamus
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20
Q

Describe cervical cancer

  • When does it typically develop?
  • Risk factors
  • Where does it usually develop?
A
  • Common among women ages 30 to 50
  • Smoking, early-age sexual activity, STDs, and human papillomavirus
  • Usually begins in epithelial cells of lower cervix
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21
Q

Describe meiosis

A

A type of cell division that reduces the number of chromosomes in the parent cell by half and produces four gamete cells

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22
Q

Does the vagina have any glands?

A

No

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23
Q

Ductus deferens

A
  • Spermatic duct
  • Peristalsis during orgasm
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24
Q

Efferent ductules

A
  • Spermatic duct
  • 12 small ciliated ducts collecting sperm from rete testes and transporting it to epididymis
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25
Q

Ejaculatory duct

A
  • Spermatic duct
  • Formed from ductus deferens and seminal vesicle and passing through prostate to empty into urethra
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26
Q

What regulates the male reproductive function?

A
  • Gonads
  • Hypothalamus
  • Pituitary gland
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27
Q

What endocrine hormone controls puberty?

A

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

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28
Q

Epididymis

A
  • Spermatic duct
  • Posterior of testis
  • Site of sperm maturation and storage (fertile for 60 days)
  • Head, body and tail
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29
Q

Epithelium cells of the vagina

  • In children
  • At puberty
A
  • Child: simple cuboidal
  • Puberty: stratified squamous
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30
Q

Erectile dysfunction

  • % of occurrence during 60s and 80s
A
  • 20% of men in 60s
  • 50% of those in 80s
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31
Q

Exhalation of carbon dioxide (CO2)

  • How does it impact pH and fluids
  • What is it called
  • What type of feedback loop is it
A
  • Increase in CO2 lowers pH of body fluids
  • Because H2CO3 can be eliminated by exhaling CO2 it is called a volatile acid
  • Negative feedback loop
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32
Q

Why do the testes reside in the scrotum?

A
  • They have adapted to its cooler environment
    • Its temperature must be held at about 35°C because it cannot produce sperm at core body temperature of 37°C
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33
Q

External genitalia of females

A
  • Clitoris
  • Labia majora
  • Labia minora
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34
Q

External genitalia of males

  • What does it include?
  • What does it occupy?
  • Where is it bordered by?
A
  • Scrotum and penis
  • Occupies the perineum
  • Bordered by the pubic symphysis, ischial tuberosities, and coccyx
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35
Q

Extracellular fluid (ECF)

  • Describe
  • Where is ECF in the body
A
  • Fluid that is outside of the cells (35%)
    • 25% is interstitial fluid between cells (where most ECF resides)
    • 20% plasma in blood
    • 2% in lymph, cerebrospinal fluid, synovial fluid, aqueous humor, vitreous body, endolymph, perilymph, and pleural, pericardial, and peritoneal fluids
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36
Q

Female reproductive system

  • Form & function
  • Copulatory organ
A
  • Produces eggs, receives sperm, provides for the union of the gametes, harbors the fetus, and nourishes the offspring
  • Females have a copulatory organ (vagina) for receiving the sperm
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37
Q

Filtration membrane

  • List & describe the 3 barriers through which fluid passes
A
  • Basement membrane
  • Fenestrated endothelium of glomerular capillaries
  • Filtration slits
    • Podocyte cell extensions (pedicels) wrap around the capillaries to form a barrier layer with 30 nm filtration slits
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38
Q

Flow of fluid from the point where the glomerular filtrate is formed to the point where urine leaves the body

A

glomerular capsule → proximal convoluted tubule → nephron loop → distal convoluted tubule → collecting duct → papillary duct → minor calyx → major calyx → renal pelvis → ureter → urinary bladder → urethra

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39
Q

Formula for ECF lowering pH by releasing H+

A
  • CO2 + H2O ⇢ H2CO3 ⇢ HCO3− + H+
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40
Q

Formula for ECF raising pH by binding H+

A
  • CO2 + H2O ⇠ H2CO3 ⇠ HCO3− + H+
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41
Q

Function of the uterus

A
  • Expels the fetus
  • Harbors fetus
  • Source of nutrition
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42
Q

Gametes

  • What are they?
  • What does each gamete do?
A
  • Sex cells
  • Male & female gametes combine their genes to form a zygote
    • One gamete has motility: sperm (spermatozoon)
      • Parent with a Y chromosome is male
    • Other gamete contains nutrients for developing embryo: egg (ovum)
      • Anyone lacking a Y chromosome is female
      • In mammals, female is the parent that provides a sheltered internal environment and prenatal nutrition of the embryo
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43
Q

Where do the gonads develop?

Where do they migrate to?

A
  • Male and female gonads initially develop testosterone high in the abdominal cavity near the kidneys
  • Migrate into the pelvic cavity (ovaries) or scrotum (testes)
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44
Q

Gonads

  • When do they develop
  • List & describe its 2 ducts
A
  • Begin to develop at 6 weeks
  • 2 sets of ducts
    • mesonephric ducts develop into male reproductive system; or
    • paramesonephric ducts (müllerian ducts) develop into female reproductive tract
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45
Q

Gubernaculum

  • What is it
  • Where is it
A
  • Connective tissue cord that extends from the gonads to the floor of the pelvic cavity
  • Passes between the internal and external abdominal oblique muscles into the scrotal swelling
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46
Q

How does the body gain water?

A
  • Ingestion of liquids and moist foods (2300mL/day)
  • Metabolic synthesis of water during cellular respiration and dehydration synthesis (200mL/day)
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47
Q

How does the body lose water?

  • List the different ways
A
  • Evaporation from skin (600mL/day)
  • Exhalation from lungs (300mL/day)
  • Feces (100mL/day)
  • Kidneys (1500mL/day)
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48
Q

How do the kidneys excrete excess water?

A
  • dilute urine
  • excess electrolytes through concentrated urine
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49
Q

How does continual exchange of water and solutes occur among internal compartments?

A
  • Diffusion
  • Filtration
  • Osmosis
  • Reabsorption
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50
Q

How does the body regulate water & solute loss?

A
  • Urine
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51
Q

How does the body regulate water gain?

A
  • Water intake (how much you drink)
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52
Q

How is estrogen secreted before, during, and after pregnancy?

A
  • Before: ovarian follicles
  • During: placenta
  • After: corpus luteum
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53
Q

How is milk ejection (letdown) controlled?

A

Neuroendocrine reflex

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54
Q

How is the uterus positioned in the body?

A
  • Tilts forward over the urinary bladder
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55
Q

How is urea formed?

A
  • Proteins ⇢ amino acids ⇢ NH2 removed to form ammonia
  • liver then converts to urea
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56
Q

How many pairs of autosomes do our cells contain?

A

22 pairs; 44 total autosomes

(chromosomes 1-22)

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57
Q

How many pairs of chromosomes do our cells contain?

A
  • 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 total chromosomes)
    • All eggs carry the X chromosome
    • Males produce half Y-carrying sperm and half X-carrying sperm
    • 1 pair of sex chromosomes (XY males: XX females)
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58
Q

Identify A

A

Kidney

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59
Q

Identify B

A

Ureter

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60
Q

Identify C

A

Urinary bladder

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61
Q

Identify the clitoris, mons pubis, labia minora, & vagina orifice

A
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62
Q

Identify the following: uterus, uterine tubes, bladder & ovary

A
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63
Q

Infant’s suckling stimulates sensory receptors in the nipple, signaling ____ and ____ to release ____

A
  • Hypothalamus
  • Posterior pituitary
  • Oxytocin
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64
Q

Intracellular fluid (ICF)

  • Describe
A
  • Fluid that is inside the cells (65%)
  • About ⅔ of body fluid
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65
Q

Kidney infections & trauma

  • List & describe
A
  • Hematuria: presence of blood in the urine
  • Proteinuria (albuminuria): presence of protein in urine
  • Note
    • Distance runners and swimmers often experience temporary proteinuria or hematuria
      • Prolonged, strenuous exercise greatly reduces profusion of kidney
        • Glomerulus deteriorates under prolonged hypoxia
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66
Q

How does blood enter and leave the kidney structure?

A
  • Enters the kidney through the renal artery
  • Leaves through the renal vein
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67
Q

List & describe layers of the uterine wall

A
  • Endometrium: inside lining
    • site of attachment of the embryo
    • forms the maternal part of the placenta from which the fetus is nourished
  • Myometrium: middle muscular layer
  • Perimetrium: external serosa layer
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68
Q

List & describe endometrium cells

A
  • Simple columnar epithelium with thick layer compound tubular glands
    • stratum functionalis: superficial, shed each period
    • stratum basalis: deep layer, regenerates a new stratum functionalis with each menstrual cycle
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69
Q

List & describe the 3 protective connective tissue coverings of the kidneys?

A
  • Fibrous capsule: encloses kidney protecting it from trauma and infection
  • Perirenal fat capsule: cushions kidney and holds it into place
  • Renal fascia: binds it to abdominal wall (deep to parietal peritoneum)
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70
Q

List & describe the cells in the distal convoluted tubule (DCT) and collecting duct

A
  • Intercalated cells
    • Involved in acid–base balance by secreting H+ into tubule lumen and reabsorbing K+
  • Principal cells
    • Most numerous
    • Have receptors for hormones
    • Involved in salt and water balance
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71
Q

List & describe the major portions of the uterine fallopian tubes

A
  • Ampulla: middle and longest part (most important part!)
  • Fimbriae: feathery projections on infundibulum
  • Infundibulum: flared, trumpet-shaped distal (ovarian) end
  • Isthmus: narrower end toward uterus
  • Mesosalpinx: the superior portion of the broad ligament that enfolds uterine tube
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72
Q

List the spermatic ducts

A
  • Ductus deferens
  • Efferent ductules
  • Ejaculatory duct
  • Epididymis
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73
Q

List and describe the spermatozoon regions

A
  • Midpiece: contains mitochondria around axoneme of the flagella (produce ATP for flagellar movement)
  • Principal piece: axoneme surrounded by fibers
  • Endpiece: very narrow tip of flagella
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74
Q

List and describe the stages of labor

A
  • Dilation: longest stage
  • Expulsion: active labor
  • Placental: baby has arrived, but still bearing down to remove placenta
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75
Q

List internal genitalia of females

A
  • Ovaries
  • Uterine tubes
  • Uterus
  • Vagina
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76
Q

List the 3 regions of the uterus

A
  • Body
  • Cervix
  • Fundus
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77
Q

List the 3 types of homeostatic balance

A
  • Acid-bace balance
  • Electrolyte balance
  • Water balance
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78
Q

List the cations & anions of ECF & ICF

A
  • ECF
    • cation = Na+
    • anion = Cl-
  • ICF
    • cation = K+
    • anions = proteins and phosphates (HPO42-)
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79
Q

List the hormones with the strongest influence on pregnancy

A
  • Estrogen
  • Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) - used for pregnancy tests
  • Human chorionic somatomammotropin (HCS)
  • Progesterone
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80
Q

List the phases of meiosis (in order)

A
  • Interphase
  • Prophase
  • Metaphase
  • Anaphase
  • Telophase
  • Cytokenisis
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81
Q

List the systems that maintain homeostatic balances

A
  • cardiovascular
  • digestive
  • endocrine
  • integumentary
  • lymphatic
  • nervous
  • respiratory
  • urinary
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82
Q

Magnesium

  • Describe
  • Constitution
A
  • 2nd most common intracellular cation
    • Cofactor for certain enzymes and Na+/K+ pump
    • Essential for normal neuromuscular activity, synaptic transmission, and myocardial function
    • Secretion of parathyroid hormone depends on Mg2+
    • Regulated in blood plasma by varying rate excreted in urine
  • Constitution
    • 54% is part of bone as magnesium salts
    • 46% as Mg2+ in ICF (45%) or ECF (1%)
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83
Q

Male climacteric (menopause)

  • What causes it?
  • When?
A
  • Rise in follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and lutenizing hormone (LH) secretion after age 50 produces male climacteric (menopause)
    • mood changes, hot flashes and “illusions of suffocation”
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84
Q

Male reproductive system

  • Function
  • Copulatory organ
A
  • Serves to produce sperm and introduce them into the female body
  • Males have a copulatory organ (penis) for introducing their gametes into the female reproductive tract
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85
Q

What is the end result of meiosis?

A
  • Produces 4 gametes (haploid cells), each with only half the DNA of the diploid body cells
    • Combining male and female gametes with half the genetic material produces an embryo with the same number of chromosomes as each of the parents
    • Sometimes called reduction division
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86
Q

Meiosis I: Anaphase I

A
  • Homologous chromosomes separate and migrate to opposite poles of the cell
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87
Q

Meiosis I: Telophase I

A
  • New nuclear envelopes form around chromosomes
  • Cell undergoes cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis)
  • Each cell is now haploid
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88
Q

Meiosis II: Anaphase II

A
  • Centromeres divide
  • Sister chromatids migrate to opposite poles of cell
  • Each chromatid now constitutes a single-stranded chromosome
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89
Q

Meiosis II: Metaphase II

A
  • Chromosomes align on equatorial plane
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90
Q

Meiosis II: Prophase II

A
  • Nuclear envelopes disintegrate again
  • Chromosomes still consist of 2 chromatids
  • New spindle forms
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91
Q

Meiosis II: Telophase II

A
  • New nuclear envelopes form around chromosomes
  • Chromosomes uncoil and become less visible
  • Cytoplasm divides
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92
Q

Meiosis I: Metaphase I

A
  • Tetrads align on equatorial plane of cell with centromeres attached to spindle fibers
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93
Q

Meiosis I: Early & Mid-to-Late Prophase

A
  • Early prophase 1
    • Chromatin condenses to form visible chromosomes
    • Each chromosome has 2 chromatids joined by a centromere
  • Mid-to-late prophase I
    • Homologous chromosomes form pairs (tetrads)
    • Chromatids often break and exchange segments (crossing-over)
    • Centrioles produce spindle fibers
    • Nuclear envelope disintegrates
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94
Q

Menarche

A
  • First menstrual period
    • requires at least 17% body fat in teenagers, 22% in adults
      • leptin stimulates gonadotropin secretion
      • improved nutrition (increased body fat) has lowered avg age of onset to 12
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95
Q

Metabolic acidosis

  • Describe
  • Cause
  • Counter-measures
A
  • Describe
    • Abnormally low HCO3 in systemic arterial blood
    • Severe diarrhea or renal dysfunction
  • Cause
    • Failure of kidneys to excrete H+ from metabolism of dietary proteins
  • Counter-measures
    • Hyperventilation
    • Sodium bicarbonate
96
Q

Metabolic alkalosis

  • Describe
  • Cause
  • Counter-measures
A
  • Describe
    • Abnormally high HCO3- in systemic arterial blood
    • Nonrespiratory loss of acid: vomiting of acidic stomach contents, gastric suctioning
    • Severe dehydration
    • Deals with kidneys
  • Cause
    • Alkaline drugs (antacids)
    • Use of diuretics
  • Counter-measures
    • Hypoventilation
    • K+ and electrolytes
97
Q

Minor & major calyx

A
  • Minor: Cup that nestles the papilla of each pyramid; collects urine
  • Major: Convergence of two or three minor calyces
98
Q

Mitosis

  • Describe
A
  • Process where a single cell divides into two identical daughter cells (cell division)
99
Q

Most of the body’s water is in________

A

Intracellular fluid (ICF)

100
Q

Osmosis from one fluid compartment to another is determined by _____

A

The relative concentration of solutes in each compartment

101
Q

Primary & secondary sex organs

  • Describe
  • Examples of each
A
  • Primary sex organs (gonads)
    • Produce gametes (testes or ovaries)
  • Secondary sex organs
    • Organs other than the gonads that are necessary for reproduction
      • Male
        • system of ducts, glands
        • penis delivers sperm cells
      • Female
        • uterine tubes
        • uterus
        • vagina receive sperm and harbor developing fetus
102
Q

Primary sex organs of females

103
Q

Prostate cancer

A
  • 2nd most common cancer in men after lung cancer
    • Tumors tend to be near the periphery of the gland where they do not obstruct urine flow
    • Digital rectal exam (DRE): palpated through rectal wall to check for tumors
    • Diagnosed from elevated levels of serine protease (PSA) and acid phosphatase in the blood
104
Q

Pubarche

A
  • Growth of pubic & axillary hair
  • Growth of apocrine & sebaceous glands
105
Q

Reason that contributes to someone having a too low GFR

A
  • Wastes reabsorbed in body
  • Azotemia may occur
106
Q

Regions of the urethra

A
  1. Membranous
  2. Prostatic
  3. Spongy (penile) urethra
107
Q

Why would someone have too high of GFR?

  • Why
  • Impact
A
  • Fluid flows through the renal tubules too rapidly for them to reabsorb the usual amount of water and solutes
    • Urine output rises
    • Chance of dehydration and electrolyte depletion
108
Q

Which type of renal autoregulation would stabilize the GFR based on the tendency of smooth muscle to contract when stretched?

A

Myogenic mechanism

109
Q

Reproductive system dormancy

A
  • Remains dormant for several years after birth
    • 10 to 12 years in most boys
    • 8 to 10 years in most girls
110
Q

Requirements for sperm motility

A
  • Elevated pH and an energy source
    • Prostatic fluid buffers vaginal acidity from pH 3.5 to 7.5
    • Seminal vesicles provide fructose and other sugars to the mitochondria
111
Q

Respiratory acidosis

  • What is it
  • What causes it
  • Examples
A
  • Any condition that decreases movement of CO2 out
  • Caused by changes in partial pressure of CO<u>2</u> in systemic arterial blood
  • Examples: emphysema, pulmonary edema, airway obstruction
112
Q

Respiratory alkalosis

  • What is it
  • Results in…
  • Part of the body does it deal with
A
  • Abnormally low PCO2 in systemic arterial blood
  • Results in hyperventilation due to oxygen deficiency from high altitude or pulmonary disease, stroke or severe anxiety
  • Deals with lungs
113
Q

Scrotum

  • Describe its form
  • List & describe its components
A
  • Pouch of skin, muscle, and fibrous connective tissue containing the testes
    • Internal median septum divides scrotum into right and left compartments
    • Left testicle usually descends lower than the right so the two are not compressed against each other
    • Perineal raphe: medial seam located on the scrotum extending anteriorly along ventral side of penis and posteriorly to anus
    • Skin has sebaceous glands, sparse hair, rich sensory innervation, somewhat darker pigmentation than skin elsewhere
114
Q

Secondary sex characteristics

  • General description
  • Examples for both sexes, males & females
A
  • Features that further distinguish the sexes and play a role in mate attraction
  • Develop at puberty to attract a mate
    • Both sexes: Pubic and axillary hair and their associated scent glands, and the pitch of the voice
    • Male: Facial hair, coarse and visible hair on the torso and limbs, relatively muscular physique
    • Female: Distribution of body fat, breast enlargement, and relatively hairless appearance of the skin
115
Q

Secondary sex organs of females

A

All non-ovary internal organs and external genitalia

116
Q

Semen

A
  • Fluid expelled during orgasm
    • Normal sperm count 50 to 120 million/mL
      • Infertility = < 20 to 25 million/mL
117
Q

Skin over penis shaft

A
  • Loosely attached; allows expansion
  • Extends over glans as prepuce (foreskin)
  • Removed by circumcision
118
Q

Smegma

A
  • Waxy secretion produced by the sebaceous glands in the glans and facing surface of the prepuce
119
Q

Spermatic cord

  • What does it contain?
A
  • Blood and lymphatic vessels
  • Ductus deferens
  • Testicular nerve
120
Q

SRY gene

  • Describe
  • What does it code for in males?
A
  • Sex-determining region of Y gene
  • In males, codes for a protein that causes development of testes
    • secrete testosterone around 8/9 weeks
    • secrete müllerian-inhibiting factor; degenerates paramesonephric ducts
121
Q

Stages of urine formation

A
  1. Glomerular filtration. Creates a plasma like filtrate of the blood
  2. Tubular reabsorption. Removes useful solutes from the filtrate, returns them to the blood
  3. Tubular secretion. Removes additional wastes from the blood, adds them to the filtrate
  4. Water conservation. Removes water from the urine & returns it to blood; concentrates wastes
122
Q

T/F

Ectopic pregnancy is synonymous with tubal pregnancy

123
Q

T/F

Estrogen levels are always high in pregnancy

124
Q

T/F

Female development occurs in absence of androgen hormones (ie testosterone)

125
Q

T/F

If estrogen was the hormone that directed the female development, all fetuses would be feminized

126
Q

T/F

In the female fetus, the absence of testosterone results in the development of the external genitalia into clitoris, labia minora, and labia majora

127
Q

T/F

Kidneys can help raise blood pH

128
Q

T/F

Major calyces is a cup that nestles the papilla of each pyramid; collects it urine

A

False

It is the minor calyx that does this

129
Q

T/F

Mesonephric (wolffian) duct develops into the female reproductive tract

130
Q

T/F

The minor calyx is formed by convergence of two or three minor calyces

A

False

It is the major calyces that are formed by convergence of 2 or 3 minor calyces

131
Q

T/F

Normally, cells neither shrink or swell. Explain.

A
  • True
  • Intracellular and interstitial fluids have the same osmolarity
    • Increasing osmolarity of interstitial fluid draws water out of cells and cells shrink
    • Decreasing osmolarity of interstitial fluid causes cells to swell
132
Q

T/F

Respiratory acidosis/alkalosis results from changes in partial pressure of CO2 in systemic arterial blood

133
Q

T/F

STDs have an incubation period in which the pathogen multiplies with no symptoms and a communicable period in which the disease can be transmitted to others

134
Q

T/F

Symptomless carriers of STDs exist

135
Q

T/F

The bulbourethral (Cowper’s) gland protects the sperm by neutralizing the alkalinity of residual urine in the urethra

136
Q

T/F

The intake of water and electrolytes is rarely proportional

137
Q

T/F

The kidneys receive 21% of the cardiac output

138
Q

T/F

The kidneys secrete antidiuretic hormone (ADH) in response to dehydration

A

False

The pituitary secretes antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

139
Q

T/F

The male urethra is shared by the reproductive & urinary systems

140
Q

T/F

The renal artery arises from the thoracic aorta

A

False

It arises from the abdominal aorta

141
Q

T/F

The right kidney is positioned lower on the abdominal wall because of the position of the liver

142
Q

T/F

The scrotum contains the testes and spermatic cords

143
Q

T/F

The thick segment of the Nephron loop (loop of Henle) is made of simple cuboidal epithelium and is heavily engaged in the active transport of salts and have many mitochondria

144
Q

T/F

The thin segment of the Nephron loop (loop of Henle) is made of simple squamous epithelium and is very permeable to water

145
Q

T/F

The vagina has no glands but it is moistened by mucus from glands in the cervical canal

146
Q

T/F
Urea is the main component of urine

147
Q

Testes cells & tubules

  • List & describe
A
  • Interstitial (Leydig) cells: produce testosterone
  • Seminiferous tubules
  • Sustentacular (Sertoli) cells in between germ cells: protect the germ cells, and promote their development
148
Q

Testes

  • Function
A
  • Produce sex hormones and sperm
149
Q

Testicular nerves connect to spinal cord segments _____ and _____

A

T10 and T11

150
Q

Testicular thermoregulation mechanisms

A
  • Cremaster muscle: pulls testes close to body
  • Dartos muscle: wrinkles skin reducing surface area of scrotum; lifts it upwards
  • Pampiniform plexus: veins ascending near testicular artery; countercurrent heat exchanger cools arterial blood entering testis
151
Q

The average person has approx ____ nephrons per kidney

A

1.0 - 1.2 million

152
Q

The connective tissue layer protecting the kidney and assisting in staving off infection is known as the ______

A

Fibrous capsule

153
Q

Thelarche

A
  • Development of breasts
154
Q

Term used when less than 500 mL of urine is voided in a day

155
Q

Term used when 1 to 2 liters of urine is voided in a day

156
Q

Term used when 0 - 100 mL of urine is voided in a day

157
Q

Term used when 2 or more liters of urine is voided in a day

158
Q

There are two convoluted tubules that make up a nephron, the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) and distal convoluted tubule (DCT).

Which one is made of simple cuboidal epithelium with prominent microvilli for majority of absorption?

159
Q

There are two convoluted tubules that make up a nephron, the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) and distal convoluted tubule (DCT).

Which one is made of cuboidal epithelium without microvilli?

160
Q

There are two convoluted tubules that make up a nephron, the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) and distal convoluted tubule (DCT).

Which one is at the end of the nephron?

161
Q

There are two convoluted tubules that make up a nephron, the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) and distal convoluted tubule (DCT).

Which one arises from the glomerular capsule?

162
Q

There are two convoluted tubules that make up a nephron, the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) and distal convoluted tubule (DCT).

Which one is short and less coiled?

163
Q

There are two convoluted tubules that make up a nephron, the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) and distal convoluted tubule (DCT).

Which one is the longest and most coiled region?

164
Q

Three hormones that regulate renal Na+ and Cl- reabsorption

  • List & describe
A
  • Angiotensin II & aldosterone
    • promote urinary Na+ and Cl- reabsorption of (and water by osmosis) when dehydrated
  • Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)
    • promotes excretion of Na+ and Cl- followed by water excretion to decrease blood volume
165
Q

Trace the blood flow from the renal artery into the renal cortex (capillaries)

A

aorta → renal a. → arcuate a. → afferent a.

(VERIFY)

166
Q

Trace the blood flow from the renal cortex (capillaries) to the renal vein

A

efferent → arcuate v. → interlobular v. → renal v. → inferior vena cava

(VERIFY)

167
Q

Tunica albuginea

A

White fibrous capsule on testes and ovaries

168
Q

Ureters

  • Location & description
A
  • Retroperitoneal, muscular tube that extends from the kidney to the urinary bladder
    • About 25 cm long
    • Passes posterior to bladder and enters it from below
    • Flap of mucosa acts as a valve into bladder
      • Keeps urine from backing up in the ureter when bladder contracts
169
Q

What is uric acid a product of?

A

Nucleic acid catabolism

170
Q

Urine is produced in three phases. The secretion and absorption phase moves fluid from the proximal convoluted tubule through the distal convoluted tubule. During this phase, substances have been removed or added by tubular cells.

What is the fluid in this phase know as?

A

Tubular fluid

171
Q

Water intoxication

  • Describe
  • What can it lead to?
A
  • Drinking water faster than the kidneys can excrete it
  • Can lead to convulsions, coma, or death
172
Q

What 3 structures help the penis become erect and then flacid?

A
  • Dorsal vein: drains penis of blood
  • Dorsal artery: adds girth
  • Deep artery: brings blood into erectile tissue to give girth to the penis
173
Q

What are changes in osmolarity most often the result of?

A
  • Changes in Na+ concentration
174
Q

What are the 4 general functions of electrolytes?

A
  • Control osmosis of water between body fluid compartments
  • Help maintain the acid-base balance
  • Carry electrical current
  • Serve as cofactors
175
Q

What are the functions of the kidneys?

A
  • Help control blood pressure
  • Regulating osmolality of body fluid
  • Synthesizing vitamin D (contributing to calcium homeostasis)
  • Cleans waste FROM the bloodstream
176
Q

What are the functions of the urinary system?

A
  • regulate blood volume and pressure
  • final step in synthesizing hormone, calcitriol, which contributes to calcium homeostasis
  • secrete erythropoietin, which stimulates the production of red blood cells
  • gluconeogenesis from amino acids in extreme starvation
  • regulate the osmolarity of bodily fluids
  • collaborate with the lungs to regulate the PCO<u>2</u> and acid–base balance of body fluids
  • secrete renin to control BP and electrolyte balance
  • eliminate waste
  • regulate the amount of water and solutes eliminated
177
Q

What are the organs of the urinary system?

A
  • 2 kidneys
  • 2 ureters
  • urinary bladder
  • urethra
178
Q

What are the two forms of cell division?

A
  1. Mitosis
  2. Meiosis
179
Q

What awakens the reproductive system, leading to the onset of puberty?

A

Surge of pituitary gonadotropins

180
Q

What differentiates the female sex?

A
  • No testosterone or müllerian-inhibiting factor
  • Paramesonephric duct
181
Q

What dissolves estrogen

182
Q

What do non-lactating breasts mostly consist of?

A
  • Adipose tissue
  • Collagenous tissue
183
Q

What does corpus luteum secrete?

A

Progesterone and estrogen

184
Q

What does the female genitalia occupy?

185
Q

What does the genital tubercle become in males & females?

A
  • Head (glans) of the penis
  • Glans clitoris
186
Q

What does the labioscrotal folds become in males & females?

A
  • Scrotum
  • Labia majora
187
Q

What does the urogenital folds become in males & females?

A
  • Penis
  • Labia minora
188
Q

What forms the blood-testis barrier?

A

Tight junctions between and basement membrane under sustentacular cells

189
Q

What forms the hymen?

A

Mucosal folds

190
Q

What forms the inner layer of the glomerular capsule and wraps around the capillaries of the glomerulus?

191
Q

What hormone regulates water loss?

  • Identify
  • How does it do this?
A
  • Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): aka vasopressin
    • Produced by hypothalamus
    • Promotes insertion of aquaporin-2 into principal cells of collecting duct
    • Permeability to water increases
    • Produces concentrated urine
192
Q

What hormones does GnRH produce & what do they do?

A
  • Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): develops eggs
  • Luteinizing hormone (LH): ovulation
193
Q

What hormones strongly influence pregnancy and are secreted by the placenta?

A
  • Estrogen
  • Human chorionic gonadotripin (HCG)
  • Human chorionic somatommotropin (HCS)
  • Progesterone
194
Q

What is a bicarbonate buffer system?

A

A solution of carbonic acid and bicarbonate ions

195
Q

What is aldosterone?

  • What is it
  • What is it secreted by
  • When is it secreted
  • What does it mimic
A
  • Salt-retaining hormone
  • Secreted by the adrenal cortex
    • When blood Na+ concentration falls; or
    • When K+ concentration rises; or
    • There is a drop in blood pressure → renin released → angiotensin II formation → stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone
  • Mimics estrogen
196
Q

What is an important source for the embryo until the placenta is formed, and if removed too soon a woman will undergo a spontaneous abortion or miscarry?

A

Corpus luteum

197
Q

What is human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) secreted by?

A
  • Blastocyst and placenta
198
Q

What is meant by homologous structures?

A
  • Male and female organs that develop from the same embryonic structure
199
Q

What is the final product of meiosis II?

A
  • 4 haploid cells with single-stranded chromosomes
200
Q

What is the formula for carbonic acid and bicarbonate ions?

A

CO2 + H2O ⟺ H2CO3 ⟺ HCO3− + H+

201
Q

What is the glomerulus in the kidney responsible for?

A

Capillary bed responsible for glomerular filtration

202
Q

What is the homologous structure to the cowper’s gland?

A

Bartholin’s gland

203
Q

What is the homologous structure to the foreskin of the penis?

A

Clitoral hood

204
Q

What is the homologous structure to the penis?

205
Q

What is the homologous structure to the scrotum?

A

Labia majora

206
Q

What is the homologous structure to the skin shaft of penis?

A

Labia minora

207
Q

What is the homologous structure to the testis?

208
Q

What is the largest single component of the body & how much total body mass does it constitute?

A
  • Water
  • 45 - 75% of total body mass
209
Q

What is the main factor that determines body fluid osmolarity?

A
  • Urinary water loss
210
Q

What is the main factor that determines body fluid volume?

A
  • Extent of urinary salt (NaCl) loss
    • Water follows salt
    • Too much salt = water stays in body
    • Lose salt = lose water
211
Q

What kind of cell has receptors for hormones?

A

Principal cells

212
Q

What kind of cell secretes H+ into lumen and reabsorbs K+?

A

Intercalated cells

213
Q

What kind of cell is involved in acid-base balance?

A

Intercalated cells

214
Q

What kind of cell is involved in salt and water balance?

A

Principal cells

215
Q

What lubricates the vagina?

A
  • Transduction
    • Serous fluid through its walls and mucus from the cervical gland above it
  • “vaginal sweating”
216
Q

What has a major role in keeping K+ high inside cells and Na+ high outside of cells?

A
  • Na+/K+ pumps
  • For every 3 Na+, 2 K+ move
217
Q

What position is the fetus in to prepare for birth?

218
Q

What produces an erection?

A
  • Parasympathetic signals produce an erection with direct stimulation of penis or perineal organs
219
Q

What separates ICF from interstitial fluid?

A
  • Plasma membranes
220
Q

What separates interstitial fluid from plasma?

A
  • Blood vessel walls
221
Q

What triggers puberty?

A
  • Rising levels of GnRH
222
Q

When do ions form in the body?

A

When electrolytes dissolve and dissociate

223
Q

When does testosterone secretion peak & decline?

A
  • Peak secretion at 7 mg/day at age 20
  • Declines to 1/5 of that by age 80
    • Decline in the number and activity of interstitial cells (testosterone) and sustentacular cells (inhibin)
224
Q

When does the follicular phase (of the ovarian cycle) occur?

A

From the beginning of menstruation until ovulation

225
Q

Where do ovaries receive blood from?

A
  • Ovarian artery (equivalent to testicular artery in male)
  • Ovarian branch of the uterine artery
226
Q

Where does blood leave the testes through and converge to form what?

A
  • Leaves through the pampiniform plexus
  • Converges to form the testicular veins
227
Q

Where does the right and left testicular veins drain to?

A
  • Right drains to the inferior vena cava
  • Left drains into the left renal vein
228
Q

Where does the uterine artery arise from?

A

Internal iliac artery

229
Q

Where would fluid accumulate to cause edema?

A

Tissue (interstitial) fluid

230
Q

Which function(s) does the urinary system perform to maintain the internal environment?

A
  • Excretory
  • Regulatory
  • Secretory
231
Q

List the organ systems that excrete waste

A
  • Digestive
  • Integumentary
  • Respiratory
  • Urinary
232
Q

Why do the testes reside in the scrotum?

A
  • They have adapted to the scrotum’s cooler environment
    • Cannot produce sperm at core body temperature of 37°C
    • Temperature must be held at about 35°C
233
Q

Women have a tendency to retain water during part of the menstrual cycle because estrogen mimics the action of ___________?

A

Aldosterone

234
Q

Zygote

  • Describe
A
  • Fertilized egg
  • A combination of both parents genes
235
Q

What develops and secretes estrogen and progesterone?

BIO 151 A&P II (8 decks)

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