Unit 3 Neurons and Human Brain Flashcards
What is the specialized cell that primarily makes up the brain?
Neurons
What is the function of a Neuron?
Communication cells, they send and receive neurotransmitters
The Action Potential causes the neuron to release a brain chemical, what are these called?
Neurotransmitters
List neurotransmitters covered in this lecture
Adrenaline/Epinephrine
Noradrenaline/Norepinephrine Dopamine
Serotonin
GABA
Acetylcholine
Glutamate
Endorphins
What is Adrenaline/Epinephrine?
Fight or flight neurotransmitter
What is Noradrenaline/Norepinephrine?
Concentration neurotransmitter
What is Dopamine?
Pleasure neurotransmitter
What is Serotonin?
Mood neurotransmitter
What is GABA?
Calming neurotransmitter
What is Acetylcholine?
Learning neurotransmitter
What is Glutamate?
Memory neurotransmitter
What are Endorphins?
Euphoria neurotransmitter
What is an example of a problem that can happen with Adrenaline/Epinephrine?
Panic attacks
What is an example of a problem that can happen with Noradrenaline/Norepinephrine?
ADHD
What is an example of a problem that can happen with Dopamine?
Addiction
What is an example of a problem that can happen with Serotonin?
Depression
What is an example of a problem that can happen with GABA?
Anxiety/ Sleep problems
What is an example of a problem that can happen with acetylcholine?
Learning disorders
What is an example of a problem that can happen with Glutamate?
Alzheimers
What is an example of a problem that can happen with Endorphins?
Bipolar
What does the semi-permeable membrane have embedded within it?
Ion channels
Which cell creates the myelin sheath?
(This is why each myelin sheath has it’s own nucleus)
Schwann’s cells
What do synaptic vesicles hold?
Neurotransmitters
What is the main body of the neuron called?
The Soma
All around the Soma of the Neuron are branch-like structures, what are they called?
Dendrites
What is the area labeled #1 of the Neuron called?
Dendrites (receivers)
What is the area labeled #2 on this image of the Neuron called?
The Soma or cell body
What is the area labeled #3 on this image of a neuron called?
Axon (the conducting fiber)
What is this area labeled #4 on the image of the neuron called?
Node of Ranvier
What is the area labeled #5 of this image of a neuron called?
Axon terminals (transmitters)
What is this area labeled #6 on the image of a neuron called?
Schwann’s cells (they make the myelin)
What is this area labeled #7 on the image of a neuron called?
Myelin sheath (insulated fatty layer that spreads up transmission)
What is this area labeled #8 on the image of the neuron called?
The nucleus
What is the long tube extending away from the Soma?
The Axon
What are the fatty segments along the axon called?
The myelin sheath
What are the spaces between the myelin sheath called?
The nodes of ranvier
What are the cells that make the myelin sheath called?
Schwann’s cells
What is the “skin” of the neuron called?
The semi-permeable membrane
What kind of cell is the Schwann’s cells?
A glial cell
What are the branch like structures at the end away from the neurons main body called?
Axon terminals (transmitters)
What do synaptic vesicles hold?
Neurotransmitters
Where are the synaptic vesicles located?
In the Axon terminal
How does the axon terminal get triggered to release the neurotransmitters?
With an action potential
What are ions?
Charged particles
What does Na+ stand for?
Sodium
What does K+ stand for?
Potassium
What does the neuron Soma do?
Holds the nucleus “brain” of the neuron cell
What does the neurons semi-permeable membrane do?
Is the “skin” of the neuron and has ion channels to allows some ions in
What does the Axon do?
It is a long tube where the electricity of an action potential travels
What does the myelin sheath do?
It is fatty segments along the axon which speed up the conduction of electrical transmission of an action potential
What do the nodes of ranvier do?
These are unmyelinated parts along the axon that allow the electrical transmission of an action potential to hop over myelin sheath and speed up transmission
What is visible in each segment of the myelin sheath?
Schwann cells
What is contained in Axon terminals?
Synaptic vesicles
What do synaptic vesicles do?
They hold neurtransmitters
What do dendrites do?
They have receptor sites to to receive neurotransmitters
What do receptor sites do?
Portals to receive neurotransmitters
What are the 5 stages of an action potential?
RESTING
1) Threshold
2) Depolarization
3) Repolarization
4) Hyperpolarization
5) Na+/K+ pump
RESTING
Which stage of an action potential is described:
Na+ out, K+ >in/<out; ~40mV?
Threshold, the first stage
Which stage of an action potential is described:
Na+ in, K+ in; +mV?
Depolarization, the second stage
Which stage of an action potential is described:
Na+ in, K+ out; -mV?
Repolarization, the third stage
Which stage of an action potential is described:
Too negative to communicate
Hyperpolarization, the fourth stage
Which stage of an action potential is described:
Na+ out, K+ >in/<out
The Na+/K+ pump, the fifth stage
What does Na+ out, K+ in&out; -70mV describe?
Resting, before and after an action potential stage
During chemical transmission, which neuron (pre-synaptic or post-synaptic) goes through the action potential process?
Pre-synaptic neuron
What role does the pre-synaptic neuron play in chemical transmission?
It “sends” the neurotransmitters into the synaptic gap and goes through the reuptake process
Where do the neurotransmitters go upon release?
They are “eaten up” my the Monamine Oxidase enzyme (MAO) in the synaptic gap
What is synaptic gap?
The space between neurons, they never touch
What does the pre-synaptic neuron do after it has successfully released neurotransmitters into the synaptic gap?
The Reuptake process
What is the process of recycling or repackaging neurotransmitters after successful transmission of neurotransmitters into the synaptic gap by pre-synaptic neurons
Reuptake process
Why do MAO enzymes “eat” left-over neurotransmitters in the synaptic gap? What purpose does this serve for the brain/neuron?
This is a regulation process helps maintain brain chemistry balance
Which neuron receives the neurotransmitters after they have gone through the synaptic gap?
Dendrites on the post-synaptic neuron
What does “lock and key” specific receptor sites on the post-synaptic neurons dendrites mean?
Dendrites receptor sites can only receive specific neurotransmitters
Differentiate the “excitatory” vs “inhibitory” impact on the post-synaptic neuron after chemical transmission
Excitatory - increases action potentials
Inhibitory - decreases action potentials
What is a synapse?
The non-physical connection between two neurons (neurons never touch)
What causes long-term potentiation between neurons?
When neurons communicate frequently
What happens because of long-term potentiation of a synapse?
The synapse gets stronger and causes synaptic pathways to form which is the “hard-working” of your brain (i.e. memories/knowledge, etc)
What is homeostasis?
A balanced, stable or steady state
What happens if your neurotransmitters don’t stay balanced?
You will start having symptoms of mental illness
What can happen to a synapse if a person’s pattern of thinking changes?
If you don’t use it, you lose it. Vice versa if you use it more it gets stronger
What is Down Regulation?
When receptor sites shut down if too much dopamine is present
Describe an example of how a drug produces downregulation
-Take a drug
-The reward center of your brain produces dopamine (DA) and impairs reuptake & MAO processes
- excessive DA (the high)
- DA receptor sites shut down
What do prescription psychotropic drugs help with?
If a brain doesn’t self-regulate, then a drug may be used to help create balance (I.e. increase or decrease neurotransmitters)
What does newer research suggest about the tendency to use drugs to balance brain chemistry compared to making lifestyle changes? (such as dietary, exercise and sleep habits)
that the impact of exercise, diet and sleep habits may due a better job of helping the brain regulate itself
Where does the brain get the protein, potassium, sodium, and other nutrients it needs to function properly?
Food
What is the newly emerging field that is investigating the benefits of making lifestyle changes rather than using drugs to balance brain chemistry?
Nutritional psychiatry
What is the electrical form of communication a neuron can do?
Action potential
What is the body of the neuron called?
The Soma
What is the skin of the neuron called? (This holds the ion channels)
Semi-permeable membrane
What is the receiving part of the neuron?
(Holds receptor sites)
Dendrites
What is the neurotransmitter-specific portals called?
Receptor sites
What is the long tube that extends from the Soma to the axon terminal called?
The Axon
What are the tiny sacs that contain the neurotransmitters called?
Synaptic vesicles
What is the sending part of the neuron called?
(Holds synaptic vesicles)
Axon terminals
What are fatty segments along the axon called?
Myelin sheaths
What are the unmyelinated segments along the axon called?
Nodes of Ranvier
Explain the Reuptake process:
When the pre-synaptic neuron repackaged/reuses neurotransmitters
Explain what an MAO is
Enzymes that ensure there aren’t too many neurotransmitters
Explain Lock-&-Key specificity
The dendrite’s receptor sites have portals that only accept certain neurotransmitters
Define Neural Plate
Neural tissue that starts to fold into itself
(If this isn’t present no brain will form)
Define Neural Plate
Neural tissue that starts to fold into itself
(If this isn’t present no brain will form)
Neural groove
The folding neural tissue
(Differentiates left/right sides of the brain)
Neural tube
Neural tissue that elongates and eventually becomes the entire central nervous system (CNS)
Define Neurogenesis
The birth of a neuron/Soma
Neural migration
When neurons travel to an area of the brain before communicating
Define Synaptogenesis
The formation of a synapse (after neurons communicate)
Define Plasticity
The ability of the brain to change in response to stimulation/learning/experiences
Define pruning
Removing/decreasing unused parts of a neuron at a synapse
Define Neurodiversity
All brains are unique
Define Neurotypical
Brain development and function falls within normal ranges
Define Neuroatypical
Brain development and function falls outside of normal ranges (may or may not have a disorder)
Define Neurodevelopmental disorder
Brain development and functioning causes impairments and services are needed
Define Synesthesia
Having “joined” sensations
List three regions of the brain
1) Forebrain
2) Midbrain
3) Hindbrain
What is within the Forebrain?
Cerebral Cortex
Corpus Callosum
Limbic system
List the Four lobes of the brain
1) Frontal lobe
2) Temporal lobe
3) Parietal love
4) Occipital lobe
Describe the Cerebral Cortex
The wrinkled outer portion with two hemispheres and four lobes in the Forebrain/Cerebrum
Describe the Corpus Collosum
A thick band that connects the two hemispheres of the brain within the Forebrain/ Cerebrum
Describe the Limbic System
A group of structures also know as the “animal brain” located in the Forebrain/Cerebrum
What connects the two hemispheres of the brain?
The Corpus Callosum
Describe the functions within the Frontal Lobe
Higher order mental processes and conscious behaviors & smell
Describe the functions within the Parietal Lobe
Whole body sensations & touch
Describe the functions within the Occipital Lobe
Vision
Describe the functions within the Temporal Lobe
Sound and taste
Do both hemispheres of the brain have all four lobes?
Yes
List 5 fetal origin toxins
Radiation
Lead
Toxic waste
Chemicals
Pesticides
Air pollution
List fetal origin factors that would promote brain development
Prenatal vitamins
Managing stress
List fetal origin factors that would impair brain development
Drinking alcohol
Taking drugs/medication
List Nurture factors that promote healthy brain development
Affection
Attention
Education
List Nurture factors that might impair brain development
Abuse
Neglect
Poverty
List Nature factors that promote healthy brain development
Good genes
List Nature factors that might impair brain development
Genetic mutations
Who conducted research to mimic the upbringing of orphans experience by separating monkeys from their mothers at birth?
Harry Harlow
List three findings of Harry Harlows research
1) infants need regular touch in addition to being regularly fed and cleaned
2)infants who didn’t get regular touch affection and movement sometimes died
3) If given a choice between surrogate mother who felt soft and moved or surrogate mother who only provided food the monkey chose comfort over food
What can happen if a care giver regularly allows a child to cry without responding?
Toxic Stress Syndrome, where the growth, development and function of the brain can be impaired and can cause death
What can result from Shaken Baby Syndrome?
Brain damage, loss of knowledge/skills, convulsions/seizures, death
Define Nature
Genetic influences
Define Nurture
Environmental influences
Define Fetal Origins
Prenatal influances
When is the brain fully developed?
Between 21-25 years old
How many neurons does a healthy brain have when it’s fully developed?
~90 billion neurons
What is the consistency of a mature brain?
Similar to soft tofu very easily damaged
Which Cortex plans upcoming movements? Which lobe is it in?
Pre-motor cortex in the Frontal lobe
Which Cortex handles conscious/voluntary movements? Which lobe is it in?
Motor Cortex, frontal lobe
Which Cortex processes everything you touch/feel? Which lobe is it in?
Somatosensory Cortex, Parietal Lobe
Which Cortex allows you to make speech sounds/talk? Which Lobe is it in?
Brocas’s cortex, frontal lobe
Which Cortex allows you to comprehend speech sounds? Which lobe is it in?
Wernicke’s Cortex, Temporal lobe
Which Cortex processes everything you hear (voice, music, etc) ? Which lobe is it in?
Primary Auditory Cortex, Temporal lobe
Which Cortex processes everything you see? Which lobe is it in?
Visual cortex, occipital lobe
Which Cortex handles decision making mental processes (considering pros/cons)? Which lobe is it in?
Pre-Frontal Cortex, frontal lobe
What is “Aphasia”?
The inability to produce and/or understand language
What is Broca’s Aphasia?
Inability to speak
What is Wernicke’s Aphasia
Inability to understand language
What does the left hemisphere do?
Controls right side of the body, verbal, mathematical, logical, reasoning skills
What does the right hemisphere do?
Controls left side of the body, non-verbal, artistic, intuitive, creative skills
Which two cortices are only located in the left hemisphere?
Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas
What is the association cortex/cortices?
These are made up of interneurons and connect the different cortices
List the 5 limbic system structures
1) Thalamus
2) Hypothalamus
3) Hippocampus
4) Amygdala
5) Olfactory bulb
What does the Thalamus do?
Relays information from brainstorm to cerebral cortex. (Usually it directs signals to the Occipital lobe as vision is a dominant sense)
What does Hypothalamus do?
Activates/regulates the pituitary gland
(Which is the master gland of the entire endocrine system or glands that produce all bodily hormones)
What does the Hippocampus do?
Helps you form new short-term memories and neurogenesis
What does the Amygdala do?
Helps you feel and process emotions
What does the Olfactory Bulb do?
Helps you process smells
What are two structures in the Midbrain?
Substantia Nigra
Reticular Activation system
What does the substantia Nigra do?
The area that produces most of your dopamine
What does the Reticular Activation system do?
A relay station that directs signals to the cerebral cortex for further processing. If dopamine is present it will send rewarding signals to the frontal lobe and convince your brain to do that activity more
List 4 Hindbrain structures
Cerebellum
Pons
Medulla
Reticular Formation
What does the Cerebellum do?
Whole body balance, coordination, bilateral movements (like walking or swimming)
What does the Pons do?
Small muscle movements such as bladder control, swallowing
What does the Medulla do?
Regulates all life-support functions such as heart rate, respiration, digestion, perspiration
What does the Reticular Formation do?
Helps regulate the sleep-wake cycle
What makes up the brainstem?
The midbrain and hindbrain structures
Who conducted research to mimic the socioeconomic conditions children experience by raising rats in enriched, middle/average or impoverished environments?
Marian Diamond
What are 3 findings from Marian Diamonds research?
1) Those raised in impoverished environments had smaller, lower functioning brains
2) those raised in enriched environments had larger, higher functioning brains
3) there is a 25% brain mass difference based on Socioeconomic status conditions
(Later research showed decline in several areas of mental functions seemingly related to exposure to screens, recommendations to not expose children to screens before 1.5yrs)
List 3 neurodevelopmental delays researchers have correlated to early exposure to screens
Attention span deficits
Learning disorders
Language delays
List 4 things you can do to ensure you have a healthy brain
Regular exercise
Eat nutritious/healthy foods
Get proper sleep on a regular basis
Engage in regular social interactions
Study/take classes (challenge your brain)
What activity is most stimulating to the brain?
Playing a musical instrument activates more areas in both hemispheres than any other activity researched
Define Synesthesia
Having joined sensations
Give an example of Synesthesia
Tasting a flavor when you hear a sound (without eating)
What is Hydrocephalus?
A condition where fluid builds up in the brain
List 3 “last resorts” for brain conditions (featuring grand mal seizures) that don’t respond to medications
Split brain operation
Lobectomy
Hemispherectomy
What is a split brain operation?
Cutting the Corpus callosum in half
What is a lobectomy?
Removing one lobe in the brain
What is a hemispherectomy?
Removing one hemisphere of the brain
What is the first stage of an action potential?
1) Threshold
What is the second stage of an action potential?
2) Depolarization
What is the third stage of an action potential?
3) Repolarization
What is the fourth stage of an action potential?
4) Hyperpolarization
What is the fifth stage of an action potential?
5) Na+/K+ pump
What is the area marked A on this image called?
Frontal Lobe
What is the area marked B on this image called?
Parietal Lobe
What is the area marked C on this image called?
Occipital Lobe
What is the area marked D on this image called?
Temporal Lobe
What is the area marked A on this image called?
Pons
What is the area marked B on this image called?
Medulla
What is the area marked C on this image called?
Reticular Formation
What is the area marked D on this image called?
Cerebellum
What is the area marked A on this image called?
Hypothalamus
What is the area marked B on this image called?
Thalamus
What is the area marked C on this image called?
Hippocampus
What is the area marked D on this image called?
Amygdala
What is the area marked E on this image called?
Olfactory Bulb
What is the area marked F on this image called?
Frontal Lobe
What is the area marked A on this image called?
Prefrontal Cortex
What is the area marked B on this image called?
Pre-motor Cortex
What is the area marked C on this image called?
Motor Strip
What is the area marked D on this image called?
Somatosensory
What is the area marked E on this image called?
Wernicke area
What is the area marked F on this image called?
Visual cortex
What is the area marked G on this image called?
Auditory Cortex
What is the area marked H on this image called?
Broca’s
Differentiate the excitatory vs inhibitory impact on the post-synaptic neuron after chemical transmission occurs?
Excitatory - increased action potentials
Inhibitory - decreases action potentials
