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Biology 201 > UNIT 3 lecture notes > Flashcards

UNIT 3 lecture notes Flashcards

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1
Q

Cells

A

range from 10-140 microns in diameter but usually 5-10 because cells have more volume than surface area
some have no nuclei and some have 100s

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2
Q

squamous cells

A

flat on the bottom and blobs on top

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3
Q

cuboidal cells

A

squares (cubes)

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4
Q

columnar cells

A

rectangles

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5
Q

Organelles with a membrane

A 
Nucleus 
MItochondria
Golgi apparatus
Endoplasmic reticulum 
lysosomes 
peroxisomes
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6
Q

organelles with no membrane

A

ribosomes, proteosomes, cytoskeleton, centrosome and centrioles, cilia

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7
Q

eukaryotic cell

A

possess nucleus

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8
Q

prokatyotic cell

A

lack nucleus (bacteria)

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9
Q

extracellular fluid

A 
interstitial fluid 
plasma (fluid of blood)
cerebrospinal fluid ( fluid surrounding nervous system organs)
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10
Q

extracellular- cellular secretions

A

(saliva and mucous)

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11
Q

extracellular matrix

A

substance consisting of numerous proteins that acts as glue to hold cells together

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12
Q

apical surface (epithelial)

A

top surface of cells

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13
Q

basement or basal surface

A

bottom of cells held together by extracellular membrane (basement membrane)

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14
Q

Function of plasma membrane structure (fluid mosaic model)

A

seperates two aqueous compartments and forms a selectively-permeable barrier

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15
Q

Glycocalyx

A

carbohydrate coating that gives cells their identity (cell recognition)

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16
Q

glycolipids

A

connected to plasma membrane

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17
Q

glycoproteins

A

connected to integral proteins

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18
Q

Functions of the plasma membrane: mechanical/physical membrane

A

separates two of the body’s fluid compartments

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19
Q

Functions of the plasma membrane: selective permeability

A

determines manner in which substances enter or exit the cell

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20
Q

Functions of the plasma membrane: electrochemical gradient

A

generates and helps maintain the electrochemical gradient required for muscle and neuron function (the four main ions)

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21
Q

Functions of the plasma membrane: communication

A

allows cell-to-cell recognition (IE: egg to sperm) and interaction

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22
Q

Functions of the plasma membrane: cell signaling

A

plasma membrane proteins interact with specific chemical messengers and relay messages to the cell interior (not all chemical signaling)

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23
Q

phospholipids are attracted to what

A

diglycerides

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24
Q

glycolipids are attracted to what

A

triglyceride

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25
Q

Membrane lipids components and percentages

A

75% phospholipids (made of two parts)
5% glycolipids- lipids with sugar groups on outside of membrane surface)
20% cholesterol- increase membrane stability

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26
Q

Membrane proteins

A 
Communication with environment
about 50% of the plasma membrane's mass
have specified membrane functions
free floating or tethered proteins 
(integral and peripheral proteins)
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27
Q

peripheral proteins

A

connected to an integral protein or plasma membrane surface

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28
Q

Integral proteins

A

Embedded in plasma membrane or attached via covalent bonds

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29
Q

6 roles of membrane proteins

A
  1. transport
  2. receptors for signal transduction
  3. attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix
  4. enzymatic activity
  5. intercellular joining
  6. cell to cell recognition
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30
Q

cell to cell attachments of bound cells through

A

plasma membrane proximity, the glycocalyx, tight junctions, desmosomes, gap junctions

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31
Q

Plasma membrane proximity

A

cells are so close they fit like puzzle pieces
intergral proteins on adjacent cells fuse
(claudins and occludins are common proteins)

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32
Q

glycocalyx

A

consists of sugars (carbohydrates) sticking out of cell surface
glycolipids and glycoproteins
Different patters for recognition
allows immune system to recognize self and nonself

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33
Q

Desmosomes

A

Consist of plaque (protein)
linker (transmembrane) proteins
intermediate filaments
Give attachment but reduce mechanical stress

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34
Q

gap junctions

A

connexons form tunnels allowing small molecules, ions, and simple sugars to pass from cell to cell
this allows electrical signals to be passed quickly from cell to cell
(cardiac and smooth muscle cells)

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35
Q

hydrophobic (nonpolar molecules) permeability

A

highly permeable to small, fat soluble (nonpolar) substances (O2, CO2)
GASES

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36
Q

small, uncharged, polar molecules permeability

A

less permeable to smaller polar molecules (WATER, urea)

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37
Q

large, uncharged, polar molecules permeability

A

even less permeable to large polar molecules (glucose) NEEDS GLUC TRANSPORTER

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38
Q

ions permeability

A

highly impermeable to ions, even though very small

NEED SPECIFIC TRANSMEMBRANE PROTEIN

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39
Q

The two movements of molecules/ions

A

Passive and active transport

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40
Q

Passive transports two movements

A

Downhill
Simple diffusion- oxygen moves from vessels, metabolism causes waste (CO2) and then CO2 is exchanged
Facilitated diffusion- passive but a protein is needed to help move

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41
Q

Diffusion

A

passive movement of molecules (equilibrium will be reached)
downhill (high to low area transfer)
no energy used

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42
Q

Active transports two movements

A

uphill
Primary active transport
Secondary active transport

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43
Q

movement of macromolecules/large particles

A

vesicular transport (active transport)

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44
Q

two types of vesicular transport

A

endocytosis and exocytosis

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45
Q

Endocytosis

A

(pinocytosis, phagocytosis, receptor-mediated endocytosis

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46
Q

Osmosis (passive)

A

diffusion of water

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47
Q

Osmosis (passive)

A

diffusion of water

water moves from low solute concentration to high solute concentration

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48
Q

facilitated diffusion limitations: saturation

A

limited number of available carriers

Tm= transport maximum or maximum rate of transfer for a solute

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49
Q

facilitated diffusion limitations: stereospecificity

A

binding sites stereospecific

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50
Q

facilitated diffusion limitations: competetion

A

similar solutes may compete for binding site

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51
Q

Integral protein for facilitated diffusion: non-gated (leakage) channel

A

is always open and is also called a pore

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52
Q

Integral protein for facilitated diffusion: gated channel

A

is intermittently open and closed (neurotransmitters)

controlled by electrical or chemical signals

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53
Q

Glucose transporters (GLUT)

A

a type of carrier for glucose (polar but to large for any channel)

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54
Q

what is a carrier protein

A

membrane protein that bind to a substance and bring it to the other side of a membrane

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55
Q

carrier mediated facilitated diffusion

A

preformed by integral proteins

carry specific polar molecules too big for membrane channels (sugars and amino acids)

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56
Q

osmolarity

A

number of particles in solution per volume

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57
Q

isosmotic

A

two solutions have the same osmolarity

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58
Q

Hyperosmotic and hyposmotic

A

Hyperosmotic is the solution with the higher osmolarity

Hyposmotic is the solution with the lower osmolarity

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59
Q

isotonic solution

A

no osmotic flow (normal cell)

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60
Q

hypotonic solution

A

osmotic flow of water into the cell (swelling and maybe ruptures)

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61
Q

hypertonic solution

A

osmotic flow of water out of cell (shriveled cell and crenated)

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62
Q

active transport

A

uphill
requires ATP
does not depend on concentration gradient

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63
Q

primary active transport

A

ATP is used directly to facilitate solute movement

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64
Q

Na+/K+ ATPase (pump)

A

plasma membrane of virtually all cells in the body

3 Na+ out of cell and 2 K+ into cell for 1 ATP

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65
Q

Ca2+ ATPase (pump)

A

Pump calcium out of cell

Pump calcium into SR and ER from the cytosol

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66
Q

H+/K+ ATPase (H+ pump)

A

H+ out and K+ in

lining of stomach, kidney tubules, intestine

67
Q

Antiporter

A

pumps something into cell and something out simultaneously against their concentration gradients (Sodium-Potassium pump)

68
Q

Secondary active transport

A

downhill movement of one solute dependent on its concentration gradient
coupled to a solute independent of concentration gradient

69
Q

co-transport

A

symport

both solutes move in same direction

70
Q

counter transport

A

antiport solutes move in opposite directions

71
Q

Secondary active transport example

A

As Na+ diffuses back across the membrane through a membrane co-transporter protein, it drives glucose against its concentration gradient (ATP was indirectly used for glucose transport)

72
Q

Pinocytosis and phagocytosis

A

pino- Cell drinking (ingestion if fluid and solutes)

phago- cell eating (ingestion of larger cells/bacteria)

73
Q

process of phagocytosis

A

1 phagosome enters the pseudopodium
2 phagosome fuses with lysosome
3 exocytosis

74
Q

vesicular transport: receptor-mediated endocytosis

A

1 ligends bind to receptors in plasma membrane
2 ligends area divets and waits for foody
3 once it has food it becomes an endosome (coated vesicle)
4 fuse with primary lysosomes making a secondary lysosome
5 ligends are removed and absorbed into cytoplasm
6 lysosome endosomal membranes seperate
7 endosome fuses with plasma membrane and the receptors are again available for ligend binding

75
Q

exocytosis

A

Substances in secretory vesicles
v-SNARE protein finds and hooks to t-SNARE proteins on membrane
this docking process triggers exocytosis (hormones, mucus, cellular wastes)

76
Q

process of exocytosis

A

1 membrane bound vesicle migrates to the plasma membrane
2 proteins at vesicle surface (v-SNARE) bind with t-SNAREs (plasma membrane proteins)
3 fuse membranes and pore opens up
4 vesicle contents are released to cell exterior

77
Q

roles of plasma membrane receptors: contact signaling

A

cells that touch recognize eachother by their unique surface membrane receptors

78
Q

roles of plasma membrane receptors: chemical signaling

A

interaction between receptors and ligends (chemical messengers) that cause changes in cellular activities

79
Q

G protein coupled receptors (GPCR)

A

membrane receptors

have 7 transmembrane alpha helisies (cross membrane 7 times)

80
Q

3 subunits of g proteins

A

alpha, beta, and gamma

theyre connected by lipid anchors

81
Q

what do g proteins bind to?

A

GTP/GDP (guanicine tri/di phosphate)

82
Q

confromational change of a g protein

A

GPCR will change its shape once a signaling molecule bonds to it, creating a chain of events (ligend= signaling molecule)

83
Q

target proteins

A

enzymes that produce secondary messengers or ion channels that let ions be second messengers

84
Q

6 steps of g protein

A
  1. ligends bind to GPCR
  2. GPCR goes conformational change
  3. alpha subunit chnages gdp for gpd
  4. alpha subunit disociates and regulates target proteins
  5. target protein can relay second message signal’
  6. GTP hydrolyzed to GDP (loses phosphate in hydrolosis
85
Q

what is found on the outside of the nuclear envelope and on the inner membrane and what kind of layer is it

A

ribosomes
it is smooth
-it is a double phospholipid bilayer and the nuclear pores hold them together

86
Q

what is able to pass through nuclear pores

A

100 nanometers and must have a nuclear localization signal (NLS) to go into the nucleus from the cytosol

87
Q

what is the NLS made of

A

a stretch of amino acids on a protein

88
Q

what is chromatin simply said

A

a single stand of dna in its natural state. lose and chillin

89
Q

what is a ribosome made of? (and %)

A

60% RNA

40% protein

90
Q

where are ribosomes found

A

cytosolic surface of rough ER membrane and free floating in the cytosol

91
Q

what is the outer membrane of the mitochondria and is it permeable

A

phosopholipid bilayer and its permeable

92
Q

what is the cristae in a mitochondria?

A

the foldy part of the inner membrane

93
Q

what is found on the inner membrane of the mitochondria and is the inner membrane permeable?

A

the electron transport chain used for atp synthesis and no

94
Q

where is the inner membrane space and matrix in the mitochondria found?

A

inner membrane space is between the two membranes and the matrix is inside the inner membrane (the swigly stuff)

95
Q

how does a mitochondria split/grow

A

through simple fission and by creating its own DNA.

96
Q

What are the functions of the endoplasmic reticulum?

A

protein, lipid, and carbs synthesis, and Ca2+ storage

97
Q

what is the membrane and two types of the ER

A

Phospholipid bilayer and you have rough and smooth ER

98
Q

what does the word reticular mean?

A

branch

99
Q

what does the rough ER do?

A

protein synthesis, secretes proteins, proteins become integral proteins or go to 3 different places. does post transitional modifications of proteins

100
Q

the 3 sites a protein can go from the Rough ER

A
  1. ER
  2. Golgi
  3. Lysosomes
101
Q

Smooth ER functions

A

synthesis proteins
metabolizes carbs
aids indetox of drugs and toxins

102
Q

What is a simple way to see the Golgi apparatus?

A

a traffic director of proteins and lipids

103
Q

what is the Golgi apparatus made of?

A

cistern sacs

104
Q

what does the Golgi apparatus do with the proteins and lipids recieved from the ER

A

modify, concentrates, and packages proteins and lipids

105
Q

what are the three steps involved with the Golgi apparatus

A
  1. transport vesicles from ER fuse to the Golgi
  2. proteins and lipids received are further modified
  3. Determines which of the three pathways it takes next and packages it
106
Q

what is the addition of sugars called in the Golgi apparatus

A

Glycosylation (HENCE: glycolipids and glycoproteins)

107
Q

what are the three paths form the Golgi

A
  1. exocytosis
  2. delivery to plasma membrane
  3. delivery to sites within the cell
108
Q

what is a simple explanation of a lysosome?

A

a garbage disposal

109
Q

what are some of the lysosomes funtions

A
  1. digest molecules and substances
  2. autophagy- digest cell or other cells
  3. macrophages- englulf bacteria and viruses and bring them to lysosomes
110
Q

What are some of the functions of a peroxisome

A

its oxidative enzymes can detoxify, breakdown fatty acids and lipids

111
Q

where are peroxisomes mostly found

A

kidneys and liver

112
Q

what are the three purposes of the cytoskeleton

A
  1. structural support
  2. movement
  3. transport inside of cells
113
Q

what are the two proteins in microtubules

A

alpha and beta tubulin

114
Q

what are the two motor proteins that shuttle substances on the microtubules

A

Kinesin and dynein

115
Q

where are microtubules found mostly

A

nerve cells theyre very common and centrosomes

116
Q

what size are microtubules

A

25 nanometers

117
Q

what are microtubules components of

A

spindle fibers, cilia, and flagella

118
Q

what are microfilaments made of

A

actin proteins

119
Q

what are the two main functions of microfilaments

A

strengthen cell surface and resist compression

120
Q

size of microfilaments

A

7 nanometers

121
Q

what are intermediate filaments made of

A

tetramer fibrils and theyre twisted together.

122
Q

what do intermediate filaments do

A

attach to desmosome plaques and act as internal tension cables

123
Q

what is a simple explanation of intermediate filaments

A

springs in a matress

124
Q

what are the three main intermediate filaments

A
  1. neurofilaments
  2. keratin
  3. desmin (skeletal muscle cells)
125
Q

out of the microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments which are dynamic?

A

the two micro-‘s

126
Q

what are cilia and flagella made of and in what composition

A

microtubules and in a 9+2 composition

127
Q

what are flagella and cilia

A

generate movement- either a tail like sperm, or a bunch of hairs almost like a sea urcheon.

128
Q

what do the flagella and cilia grow from

A

basal body

129
Q

what is a centriole and its composition

A

microtubles and is a 9+0 composition. remember its nine packets of three microtubules

130
Q

what is the centrosome matrix

A

the microtubule organizing center, (two centrioles at a right angle)

131
Q

what happens in the phase

A

well G means growth so there is massive energy gain and copy dna

132
Q

in G1 if cells stop and go on hold what are they in

A

G0- basically a sleep phase if they dont pass the checkpoint`

133
Q

what happens in the S stage

A

DNA replication

134
Q

what happens in G2 stage

A

prepare for mitosis and last minute protein synthesis

135
Q

what is the longest stage in interphase?

A

the S stage

136
Q

what else, other than dna, is duplicated in s stage

A

proteins like histones

137
Q

what nitrogenous bases belong together?

A

Adenine:thymine
Cytosone:Guanine

138
Q

what are the bonds in dna that the ribosome break?

A

hydrogen bonds

139
Q

how can you tell the leading and laggind strand apart?

A

lagging strand will have gaps (can only go 5’-3’)

140
Q

what is the kinetochore for?

A

microtubules use it to pull chromotids apart

141
Q

what happens in mitosis: prophase

A

microtubules start to form (mitotic spindle)

142
Q

what happens in mitosis: metaphase

A

chromatids align at the center

143
Q

what happens in mitosis: anaphase

A

centromere splits to seperate sister chromatids and they move to oposite poles

144
Q

what happens in mitosis: telophase

A

nuclear membranes form

and things go back to normal

145
Q

what happens in mitosis: cytokinesis

A

cleavge furrow forms and pinches off to form two cells

146
Q

what do go signals look for at checkpoints

A

enough energy, enough volume to surface ratio and the chemicals needed

147
Q

what do stop signals look for

A

availiability of space

148
Q

what are cyclins and their function

A

regulatory proteins that start working at interphase

149
Q

what are Cdks and their functions

A

enzymes that activate cyclins

150
Q

central dogoma of biology order

A

DNA to mRNA to protein

151
Q

what is a code/codon and what does it consist of

A

a group of 3 nucleotides and they are for an amino acid

152
Q

Three types of rna

A

mRNA- messenger
rRNA- ribosomal
tRNA- transfer

153
Q

in what three ways does DNA and RNA differ in the RNA standpoint

A

uracil is used instead of thymine
Ribose instead of deoxyribose
Single stranded

154
Q

what is the function of tRNA

A

translates RNA

155
Q

what is an anticodon

A

the opposite matching code created (3 long)

156
Q

What is the start codon?

A

AUG

157
Q

what is splicing and what does it accomplish

A

splicing uses spliceosomes to remove introns and keep exons

158
Q

anticodon loop

A

where the anticodons for the mRNA are

159
Q

what are the three steps of translation

A
  1. initiation- find AUG
  2. elongation- go till stop codon while making peptide bonds
  3. termination
160
Q

where are proteins fed from the ribosomes into?

A

the lumon (ER)

161
Q

what can flag proteins for death?

A

ubiquitins

162
Q

Proteasomes dissasemble what?

A

proteins tagged with ubiquitins

163
Q

what is name for cell death/suicide?

A

apoptosis

164
Q

what enzyme is in charge of cell suicide?

A

caspases

Biology 201 (8 decks)

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