Unit 3 Flashcards
Anthropology and Psychology: human development
What is Socialization and who are the agents of socialization?
Process by which an individual becomes a member of a particular culture and takes on its values and behaviors.
-> Agents of socialization: family, peers, education, and media.
What is the difference between Socialization and Enculturation?
- Socialization → skills, and knowledge. Social roles and norms within society
- Enculturation → Cultural knowledge and identity. the process through which individuals learn and adopt the specific culture of the society they are born into
What is Human development?
Changes in physical, psychological, and social behavior that are experienced by individuals across the life span – from conception to death
What does Society/Culture teaches us?
what are desirable and undesirable behaviors, prepares individuals to successfully functioning, and guarantee that traditions will be passed to future generations
What is the ecological model and who invented it?
Bronfenbrenner
multiple influences that shape human development in the social environment
How many categories does the Ecological model have and what is the connection between them?
Human development occurs in a context composed of 5 categories (Micro, Meso, Exo, Macro and Chronosystem)
-> they are interconnected
What do we have to do in the Ecological model in order to compare development across culture?
consider the experiences within these influences
What does Super & Harkness Developmental niche state?
there are 3 interrelated components influencing socialization
- culture and customs
- psychology of caretakers
physical and social settings
What does the Quality of life influence? How do countries vary in it?
affects individuals development
-> countries differ in: technology, socioeconomics, immigration, wealth etc..
How do collectivistic and individual countries vary in relation to families?
In collectivists countries extended family were emotionally and geographically closer than wealthy individualist countries
How does the quality of life affect education/resources and socioeconomics/poverty?
- Educational and resources:
Middle-class parents answer children’s questions with more elaborate explanations than lower social class. - Socioeconomic / Poverty:
affect children’s health, social, emotional and cognitive development, behavior and educational outcomes
What does development and socialization also depend on?
the people with whom the child interacts, places where they spend time and roles children play and are assigned to
What are the differences in parental values and expectations?
Parents have own developmental timetables
-> expectation that children acquire particular characteristics
-> cultural pattern (mothers of European background - cognitive skills earlier than non European mothers)
What did Erik Erikson theorize?
the psychosocial development theory
-> every person during his or her lifespan goes through 8 developmental stages
-> each stage characterized by a developmental conflict (if successfully resolved: greater adaptation and healthier personality)
What are some examples of Erik Erikson’s developmental and personality theories?
- he assumed people have choices but in some cultures, identities and lifestyles are prescribed at birth
-> traditional caste systems like for example in India
-> children born into specific social groups (indicates social status)
-> These roles and expectations are prescribed at birth and are difficult to change.
What do we have to do when applying Erik Erikson’s developmental and personality theories to specific cultural conditions?
analyze how culture views each life crisis and what is generally expected of an individual to perform, believe in, or reject to solve the crisis
What did Jean Piaget state about cognitive development and how many stages are there?
development of process of thinking about themselves and the world around
- 4 stages (according to Dasen, they are universal)
What is Piagets idea of animism?
toys have souls (in preoperational stage 2-7)
-> does not develop in the same way or at the same age in every year
What are critics of Piagets theory?
Critics: He valued some stages more tan others (i.e., formal operations).In western and non-western, many healthy adolescents fail in formal
operational tasks
What are the Stages of Moral Development and who developed it?
Lawrence Kohlberg
- development of moral judgments
-> contains 3 levels, 6 stages (first 4 stages appear to be universal)
What are the 3 levels of Lawrence Kohlberg’s Moral Development Stages?
- Preconventional Level (seen in children): individuals base moral decisions on personal consequences and self-interest
- Conventional Level (seen in adolescents and adults): moral reasoning is shaped by social rules, norms and expectations
- Postconventional Level (seen in some adults): individuals recognize that rules and laws may not always align with universal moral principle
What is a critique for the Stages of Moral Development?
stages are closely linked to values of Western liberalism and individualism based on moral choice
What are the different Developmental stages?
- Prenatal period and childbirth
- Infancy
- Childhood
- Adolescence
- Adulthood
- Old age
Is pregnancy universal? How does it differ between cultures?
yes, but practices around birth are culturally particular
-> cultural influences:
- socialization during pregnancy
- health care
- nutrition
- expectations
How can gender socialization be initiated before birth?
prebirth gender talk (imitation of gender socialization)
-> tone of voice varies depending on gender, gendered pronouns, given name etc.
-> begin to practice behaviors and values associated with gender roles
what does the two- patient model of Barnes state?
that the physicians started to treat and consider the mother and the fetus as two separate patients (western societies)
What influence can knowing the sex of the baby before birth have on the mothers?
- some pregnant woman felt closer to their fetus after learning its sex
- if opposite sex than wished for: negative influence
-> not knowing: no/less conversations with fetus
Does this early socialization has an effect on behavior after birth?
no results that prove this yet
what became more problematic over the course of human evolutionary history?
birth (head size-birth canal)
-> Response: developing cultural beliefs and practices intended to explain why labor is difficult and to alleviate pain (epidural) and enhance the safety of the mother and child
What is a successful birth marked with across cultures?
with joyful celebration
-> in some cultures woman in a state of been spiritually unclean (because of fear and wariness)
How do folks in Papua New Guinea view birth? What about China or Thailand?
Papua New Guinea: is only allowed at the outskirts of the village, reserved for other contaminating activities (excretion and menstruation)
Vietnam, China: 30 days of confinement
Thailand: mothers spend 11 days next to fire
What are rites of purification in some cultures?
Jewesh: rebeins impure for a week if male or 2 if female and then immerses in a body of water to purify
India: newborns head is shaved to remove bad luck from past lives
What do people do with the Placenta?
Simple: burning it or throwing it away, sometimes keeping it in a special place
Elaborated: it has spirit or soul of its own
-> proper rituals such as washing and burying it
What happens to the placenta in developed countries?
they know that placenta is a source of hormones and nutrients
-> give it to researchers or cosmetic manufactures
-> some eat it
-> in china: dried placenta is used to stimulate maternal milk production
How does Development entirely occur?
in a cultural environment with biological basis
What is a common picture of how infants emerges across cultures?
1) They are with their mothers almost constantly for the early months (1-6).
2) After 6 months, most daily infant care is done by older girls (sisters, relative,
babysitter…).
3) Infants are among many other people in the course of a day.
4) They are held or carried almost constantly .
5) Fathers are usually remote or absent during the first year.
-> pattern has become different over the past 2 centuries in developed countries
What do parents play a primary role in and what is it related to?
in the assignments of settings and routines for sleep
-> related to autonomy, dependence, interdependence or sensitivity to the needs of other people
What is an early start of independence in infants? What is an early start of interdependence?
independence: having an own room
interdependence: Co-sleeping
What is socialized behavior influenced by?
the developmental niche, social context, parental beliefs and values of one’s culture
How does crying vary across culture?
in individual cultures: crying episodes longer and more intense
in collectivistic cultures: rarely prolonged episodes of crying
-> all parents differentiate types of cries, but their response differ
What are the expectations for urinal and defecation control in toddlers?
since 20th century: diapers and consciousness of not being physiologically demanding.
200-300 years ago, emphasis was on teaching as soon as possible
in developed countries: process guided and supervised by parents, in developing countries: siblings or children
According to sociologists, what is the biggest distinction between childhood and adulthood?
that children are exempt from work
-> in lower socioeconomic backgrounds, children contribute greatly because of the need, in addition to play and education
When does work start in developing countries?
at middle childhood
-> 200 million children and adolescents worldwide
-> 6-7 years old: motor skills, cognitive skills, self-regulation to be excellent workers
What is moral development?
more detailed understanding of the rules and expectations of their culture
-> for example through storytelling, custom complexes (practice that contains moral and cultural belief) and observation
How does the Self-Concept develop in Childhood?
They are able to clearly identify themselves with their ethnic group, nationality, and social class
What is the Self-concept?
how we evaluate ourselves
What are differences in the Self-concept in western and other cultures?
western: cognitive features (I am intelligent)
South America/Asia: relationships or social roles (I am a big sister)
What does Self-comparison decrease and what is it linked to?
self-esteem
-> in western cultures linked to anxiety and depression
How can we describe Self-concept and Self-esteem?
Self-concept: descriptive
Self-esteem: evaluative
What does Language contain?
not only grammar and vocabulary, also pragmatic:
- linguistic social rules (what to say and not to say in social situations)
- social understanding and cultural knowledge (please, thank you, etc.)
Why is Play essential in childhood?
it is essential in the development of their physical and mental abilities, their creativity and personality
-> different cultural practices may develop different behavioral traits and patterns
What is Adolescence linked to?
Puberty
-> biological changes, gaining autonomy, ability to survive, acquire skills necessary to function as adult in social group
Is there a difference in time of puberty across culture?
yes, in Kenya for example boys show puberty changes before girls
-> menarche starts in lower age in developed countries (12.5 years), in higher developing countries (15 years)
What are cultural responses to puberty?
rites of passage
-> celebrating entrance in puberty, common in traditional cultures
e.g.: bar mitzvah, confirmation, quinceañera
What do western societies usually have instead rituals?
Laws: voting, driving license, alcohol consumption, etc.
What reaches a critical point in adolescence?
religious beliefs
-> abstract ideas can first be fully grasped
-> developed countries are less religious
What is associated with religious beliefs?
less delinquency, lower rates of adolescent depression, higher community volunteers
What role does work play in Developing countries?
- Need for work.
- Often begins before adolescence.
- Home, factory settings, prostitution (Asia, Thailand)
What role does work play in Developed countries?
- Not done as part of contributing to family survival but as a way of supporting an active leisure life.
- Up to 10 hours a week – more is harmful (School attainment, health habits…)
How do Social relationships and conflict with parents vary across culture in adolescence?
in western countries: increase of conflicts, sexual maturity and autonomy issues, greater independence
in non-western countries: rare conflicts, duty and respect, express disagreements, submit to authority of parents
How do Social relationships with peers and friends differ across culture in adolescence?
time with friends increases in most cultures
-> in india they spend more leisure time with family, in Brazil more emotional support form parents than friends
What are the 3 kind of patterns when it comes to sexual behavior across cultures?
Permissive: tolerate and even encourage adolescents sexuality
Semi-restrictive: has prohibitions on premarital adolescent sex, but not strongly enforced
Restrictive: strong prohibitions on adolescents sexual activity before marriage
-> double standard: different for boys and girls
What does adulthood represent in all cultures?
maturity, responsibility, and accountability
What is adulthood divided into?
3 stages
- early adulthood (20-40): age of possibilities
- middle adulthood (40-65): time of focusing not just on self but on how to contribute to the well-being of the young
- late adulthood (65+): variability, based on physical and mental health
What are important points in early adulthood across culture?
- Europe: the longest and most leisurely.
- Financial independence: Europe and U.S.
- Capable of supporting parents financially: Asia
- Emotional self-control: India
- Other traditional cultures: Marriage
When and why do religious beliefs decrease?
decreases from adolescence
-> need to make a break with parents beliefs and practices to establish that they are making their own decisions
What is the age in most countries when people first receive their right to vote?
18
-> political development might be expected to be an important issue in emerging adulthood
-> participation is actually lower
Why are emerging adults often involved in movements at political extremes?
- fewer social ties and obligations
- more freedom
- identity exploration: ideology
What is the typical outlook of middle adulthood regarding roles and physical health?
Middle adults have not yet had to confront the loss of meaningful roles or major impairments in physical health.
-> They often accept the life they have built and aim to make the best of their roles and responsibilities, experiencing stability
What heightens in middle adulthood and how does it differ across cultures?
heightened sense of self-understanding and self-acceptance
- Individualist cultures: emphasis on self-development, increased autonomy
- Collectivistic cultures: Emphasis on relation to others, close ties
What is the “midlife crisis,” and is it supported by research?
The idea of a “midlife crisis” stems from Carl Jung’s claims in 1930, based on his personal struggles, but decades of research suggest the midlife crisis is largely a myth
How do Family relationships change over time?
parenting responsibilities ease in some way as children grow up
-> new family obligations arise as grandchildren are born
-> NEW historical phenomenon because of life expectancy
What do elderly usually occupy in predominantly collectivistic cultures?
a high social status
How is late adulthood experienced in individualist societies?
elderly can often be isolated and even rejected
-> whereas young people enjoy the greatest status
What is ageism?
prejudice and discrimination based on age
-> in western countries
What is late adulthood perceived in asian or African societies?
more favorable
e.g.: Japan: national holiday for the aged (symbolizes freedom from previous responsibilities)
What are the cultural differences in caregiving for older adults in late adulthood?
in asian cultures: strong
obligation to respect and obey the authority of their parents, especially the father
in western cultures: Parents seek to minimize requests = independence. assisted living facilities, nursing homes…
what are some roles of grandparents in western societies?
- Passing on family history
- Minimum responsibilities, maximum fun
- The wise grandparent
- Reduced fear of death
What is the highest in late adulthood and how does it differ across cultures?
religious participation
-> woman are more religious and older men dominate positions of religious leadership
What are afterlife beliefs?
part of all the major religious traditions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam
-> death is not the end
