Unit 2 Flashcards
Anthropology as a science: theoretical and methodological aspects
What is unilinear evolutionism in anthropology?
- A 19th-century theory stating that all cultures evolve through a series of stages
- It suggests that culture obeys natural laws and can be studied scientifically.
Who is Lewis Henry Morgan, and what is his contribution to cultural evolution?
- In his work “Ancient Society,” Morgan argued that all human societies evolved through a series of stages: savagery, barbarism, and civilization.
-> emphasized that societies had to progress through these stages without skipping any.
What is Edward Burnett Tylor’s significance in anthropology?
- In “Primitive Culture,” Tylor proposed that religion would diminish as science provided better explanations.
-> believed in the evolutionary path from animism (spiritual beings) to polytheism (multiple gods), and finally monotheism (one deity).
What are the stages of cultural evolution according to Morgan?
Savagery, Barbarism, Civilization
What does animism, polytheism and monotheism refer to in the context of Tylor’s theories?
Animism: the belief in spiritual beings
Polytheism: The belief in multiple gods
Monotheism: The belief in a single, all-powerful deity
Who is Franz Boas? What did he believe in?
the father of American anthropology
-> Historical particularism
What is historical particularism?
different cultures develop in unique ways, rejecting comparisons and generalizations across cultures
What did Boas argue about cultural solutions?
similar solutions can arise independently in different cultures
e.g.: agriculture
What is an example for a cultural trait and a trait complex?
culture trait: bow and arrow;
trait complex: hunting pattern
-> need to be accepted and integrated
What ist functionalism in anthropology?
A perspective focusing on the role of cultural traits in contemporary societies, suggesting that customs fulfill universal human needs (e.g., reproduction, food).
Who is the father of ethnography? How did he contribute to functionalism?
Bronislaw Malinowski
-> emphasized that customs and institutions are interrelated and fulfill universal human needs
What is the relationship between customs and institutions according to Malinowski?
They are integrated and interrelated
What did Radcliffe-Brown emphasize in Functionalism?
The role of particular practices in life of societies today
What is synchronic study?
Studying societies at one time
What are the 2 types of functionalism?
Structural functionalism
Panglossian functionalism
What is structural functionalism?
the idea that a system has a structure whose parts function to maintain the whole, similar to how organs and processes kept the body running smoothly
-> Radcliffe-Brown & Evans-Pritchard
What is Panglossian functionalism?
the belief that the function of culture is to maintain harmony and that everything functions in the most optimal way possible for the system
-> any deviation form the norm is seen as damaging to the system
How does structural functionalism view rebellion and conflict?
is interested in how rebellion and conflict are regulated and dissipated to maintain the stability of the system
What did Ruth Benedict and Margaret Mead contribute to cultural anthropology?
focused on how culture shapes personalities and behaviors, highlighting the importance of enculturation in forming individual identities
What did Benedict and Mead believe about the variation in cultures?
that cultures vary in their patterns of enculturation, which influence how members develop both their personalities and biology
What is neoevolutionism in anthropology?
the renewed interest in studying culture change and human evolution, linking culture to biology and studying its evolution over time through archaeological and ethnographic records.
What did Leslie White contribute to neoveolutionism?
general evolution
-> we can observe how cultures evolve over time, through archaeological, historical, and ethnographic records
What is Julian Steward’s Theory of Cultural Change?
multilinear evolution
-> cultural ecology (environmental influence)
How do technology and the environment influence cultural change according to neoevolutionism?
cause of cultural change
What concept did Marvin Harris develop? What are the 3 components of his theory?
cultural materialism, insisting that anthropology is a science focused on uncovering cause-and-effect relationships
-> focus on: infrastructure, structure and superstructure
How do the components of cultural materialism relate to each other?
Infrastructure (material and economic base) determines both the structure (social relations) and the superstructure (ideology and beliefs) of a society
How did Claude Lévi-Strauss contribute to structuralism?
He aimed to uncover universal mental structures that lead individuals to classify and impose order on culture, focusing on dichotomies and communication systems
What are some key universal characteristics of the human mind according to structuralism?
The need to classify, impose order, and think in dichotomies (e.g., good vs. evil, old vs. young, high vs. low).
What is culture in Levi Strauss opinion?
a system of communication
How did Lévi-Strauss apply structuralism to culture?
applied it to myths and folk tales
-> cultures are just different expression of the common human mind, only change in some elements
What example illustrates Lévi-Strauss’s concept of structuralism in cultures?
Mariage - practices differ among cultures but concept exists in most societies
What did Leslie White (neoevolutionism) name cultural anthropology?
Culturology
What is the individuals role in cultural forces?
makes little difference because cultural forces are so powerful
What is proof of Leslie whites culturology theory?
simultaneity of discovery
What is durkheim’s view on anthropology? What does he focus on?
should be a science based on social facts that are distinct from individuals
-> focus on systems which consist of social positions (statuses and roles) and which are perpetuated across generations through enculturation
How does Durkheim explain variations suicide rates?
can and should be linked to social phenomena
-> applies only to collectivities
What is symbolic anthropology?
the study of symbols in their social and cultural context
Who was important in Symbolic anthropology, what did he analyze?
Turner - the forest of symbols
-> hierarchy of symbols, their social meaning and functions and internalization within individuals
What is Clifford Geertz’s definition of culture in symbolic and interpretive anthropology?
system based on cultural learning and symbols
-> views culture as a text that ethnographic researchers must decipher
-> interpretive anthropology
What does interpretive anthropology focus on (Clifford Geertz)?
focuses on understanding cultures by interpreting the meanings that individuals assign to their experiences, symbols, and social practices
What happens during enculturation?
During enculturation, individuals internalize an already established system of meanings and symbols that shape their worldview
How should anthropologists view the cultures of natives according to symbolic anthropology?
Cultures are texts that natives constantly “read” and ethnographers must decipher.
What is practice theory in processual approaches?
an approach that focuses on how individuals through their actions and practices influence and transform the cultural and social environments they inhabit
What does Practice theory recognize?
a reciprocal relation between culture and the individual
-> each influences and transforms the other
who are key figures associated with practice theory?
Sherry Ordner, Pierre Bourdieu and Anthony Giddens
What is the crisis of representation in anthropology?
insiders accounts are more valuable and appropriate than studies by outsiders
-> whose voices and perspectives are valued?
-> Anthropologists should be representative of their OWN culture
What is Postmodernism?
asserts that science cannot be fully trusted because it is conducted by scientists who possess inherent cultural biases, challenging the notion of objective knowledge
What is also an issue according to postmodernism?
the two-way interaction - natives observe anthropologist
-> not natural
What should anthropologists be aware of in their research?
stay aware of their biases and inability to escape them
In what context did ethnography emerge as a research strategy?
in societies characterized by greater cultural uniformity and less social differentiation than found in large, modern, industrial nations.
What is the primary goal of ethnographers in studying culture?
understand the whole of a particular culture
-> discover the totality and interconnectedness of social life
What are Ethnographic techniques?
direct observation & participant observation
interviews: unstructured and structured
The genealogical method
key consultants or informants
life histories of particular people
longitudinal studies (long term study)
survey research
What is essential in observation and participant observation?
establishing rapport
What is rapport?
having a good, friendly working relationship based on personal contact, with their hosts
What does participant observation mean?
they take part in community life as they study it
How do ethnographers record the most important aspects of cultural diversity (e.g.: smells, noises, how they eat, etc.)?
in a personal diary
What is the first step of interviews?
learning the local language
What is a more structured, formal and personal form of interviewing?
interview schedule
What is a more indirect and impersonal form of interviewing?
Questionnaire
What is the genealogical method and what does it contain?
a well established ethnographic technique
-> contains Diagrams and Symbols
What are Key consultants in Anthropology?
People in the community who can provide useful information to ethnographers due to their life experience, training, talent
What are Life Histories in Anthropology?
In-depth interviews
-> local people reveal how specific people perceive, react to and contribute to changes that affect their lives
-> recorded or videotaped, reviewed and analyzed
What is the perspective of how local people think/behave called?
Emic perspective
- cultural consultants - informants
What is the perspective of the explanations and interpretations of the ethnographer called?
Etic perspective
What is important for good results when it comes to emic and etic perspectives?
Comparison between both perspectives
What is longitudinal research?
the long-term study of a community, region, society, culture, or other unit, usually based on repeated visits
What is survey research?
The study of society through sampling, statistical analysis, and impersonal data collection.
What is the difference between Ethnography and Survey research?
Ethnography: studies whole, functioning communities, based on firsthand field work, interested in ALL aspects of local life, nonindustrial, little use of statistics
Survey research: studies small samples of larger population, little or no personal contact between subjects and researchers, focus on small number of variables, carried out in modern nations, depends heavily on statistical analysis
What are objects of study of social anthropology?
Language, Ethnicity and race, Gender, Religion, Families, kinship, descent, arts and media
What is language (spoken or written)? And since when does writing exist?
primary means of communication
-> since about 6000 years
What is language transmitted through?
learning (part of enculturation)
-> based on learned associations between words and things for which they stand?
What is the signifier and the signified?
signifier: words
signified: what they stand for
What does linguistic anthropology focus on?
changes that particular language may have
- is always changing
what says a lot about how we think and perceive the world?
the way we talk
Why do anthropologists study linguistic differences?
to discover the patterns of thought in a multitude of cultures
what is linguistic diversity in nation-states?
multilingualism, dialects and styles used in a single language
What is the communications system of nonhuman primates called?
call systems
-> limited number of sounds (calls) that are produced only when particular environmental stimuli are encountered
IMPORTANT exam
Is the vocal tract of apes suitable for spoken language?
no
What are some differences between human language and primate call system?
human: capacity to speak about things that are not present
primate: calls are stimuli-dependent, cannot combine new calls
What is nonverbal communication?
Facial expressions, bodily stances, gestures, and movements are part of our communication.
What is the study of communication through body language called?
Kinesics
What communicates social differences?
Body movements
What is language dependent on?
the use of symbols
What does Noam Chomsky (1955) state?
human brain contains a limited set of rules for organizing language
-> all of them have a common structural basis
How is the common structural basis in language called?
Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
What does it mean that all languages have universal grammar?
all human languages share a basic set of rules or principles
What is Focal vocabulary? And what is an example?
refers to specialized terms important to certain groups, influencing perception
e.g.: eskimos have multiple words for different types of snow (for other cultures it is just snow)
what affects lexical distinction?
cultural contrasts and changes
What are semantic domains?
Langauges meaning system
What are Ethnosemantics?
study of classification systems in different domains across languages (e.g., color terminology)
What is Ethnomedicine?
the terminology for the causes, symptoms, and cures of disease
What is Ethnobotany?
native classification of plant life
What does sociolinguistics study?
the relationships between social factors and linguistic variation, or language in its social context
how do new ways of speaking spread?
when they are associated with social factors, such as social status, leading people to imitate them
What is diglossia in language diversity?
Switching related dialects of a language which are discretely separated according to discourse situation (style shifts)
-> whether we use ‘High’ (formal) or ‘Low’ (informal) language
What influences our language use according to social anthropology?
Situations, geographic, cultural, and socioeconomic differences influence our speech
What defines an ethnic group?
- Collective name (e.g., the Basques, Kurds).
- Shared belief in common descent or ancestry.
- Sense of solidarity and unity among members.
- Association with a specific geographic territory (which may or may not be currently occupied by the group).
What is ethnicity?
identification with, and feeling part of, an ethnic group and exclusion from certain other groups
-> often involves cultural practices, languages, and religious beliefs that differentiate one group from others.
What is social status?
the various positions, no matter the prestige, that people occupy in society. Any
position that determines where someone fits in society
What is ascribed status?
a social status that individuals have little or no choice in, such as age or race. People are born into these statuses and remain in them throughout their lives
What is an achieved status?
a social status based on an individual’s choices, actions, efforts, or talents. Examples include being a physician, senator, or college student.
What is the situational negotiation of social identity.
one identity is used in certain settings, another in different ones
What is the difference between mutually exclusive statuses and contextual statuses?
mutually exclusive is: if particularly ascribed as one
contextual is: not mutually exclusive but contextual
What are 3 positive interactions with ethnic diversity?
Assimilation
Plural society
Multiculturalism
What does Assimilation describe?
the process of change that a minority ethnic group may experience when it moves to a country where another culture dominates.
What does the minority do by assimilating? What does that do to the cultural units?
adopts to the patterns and norms of its host culture
-> incorporated into dominant culture to the point that it no longer exists as a separate cultural unit
What is a plural society?
Ethnic distinctions can persist despite generations of interethnic contact.
-> ethnic groups can be in contact for generations without assimilating and can live in peaceful coexistence
How did Barth define plural society?
as a society combining ethnic contrast, ecological specializations and the economic interdependence of those groups
What is Multiculturalism?
A social policy or ideology that values the presence and maintenance of multiple cultural traditions within a society.
-> encourages minority groups to preserve unique cultural identities while being part of broader national society
How does Multiculturalism contrast with assimilation?
Multiculturalism is the opposite of Assimilation
What are the roots of ethnic conflict according to anthropology? What are some key causes?
Ethnic conflict often arises due to social, political, and economic inequalities between groups.
- Sense of injustice in resource distribution.
- Economic or political competition between ethnic groups.
- Discrimination and prejudice leading to a devalued social identity.
What is Prejudice, Stereotypes and Discrimination? ACHTUNG: DREI DRAUS MACHEN
- Prejudice: Devaluing a group because of its assumed attributes.
- Stereotypes: Fixed ideas—often unfavorable—about what members of a group are like
- Discrimination: Policies and practices that harm a group and its members.
What is genocide and how does it relate to ethnic conflicts?
The deliberate and systematic destruction of an ethnic, racial, or religious group
-> most extreme form of ethnic conflict, often motivated by a dominant group’s desire to eliminate a perceived threat or to assert dominance
What is the ethnocide?
The deliberate destruction of the culture of an ethnic group, without necessarily killing its members
-> involves attacking cultural practices, beliefs, and ways of life to force a group to assimilate or disappear culturally
What role does discrimination play in ethnic conflicts?
Harmful policies and practices directed against members of an ethnic group, leading to unequal treatment and exclusion.
-> can be legal or social
-> reinforces stereotypes
How do stereotypes contribute to ethnic conflict?
Fixed, oversimplified ideas about what members of a particular ethnic group are like
-> often negative, lead to dehumanization of group
What are examples of ethnic conflict outcomes, aside from genocide?
- Forced assimilation: Ethnic groups are compelled to abandon their cultural practices and adopt the dominant culture.
- Cultural colonialism: The imposition of the dominant culture over another group’s cultural identity and practices.
- Segregation: Ethnic groups are kept physically and socially apart within a society, often with unequal access to resources
How does anthropology define gender?
refers to the cultural and social constructions of what it means to be male, female, or another gender in a particular society
is gender equal to biological sex?
no
What is sexual dimorphism in anthropology?
refers to the biological differences between males and females that go beyond reproductive organs, such as differences in body size, strength, and endurance
-> can influence cultural practices
What are gender roles?
the tasks and activities that a culture assigns to individuals based on their gender
-> vary widely across cultures (often shaped by historical, social and economic factors)
What are gender stereotypes and how do they affect society?
oversimplified and widely held beliefs about the characteristics and behaviors of males and females
-> can be limiting and often reinforce gender inequalities by dictating how men and women “should” behave
What is gender stratification?
refers to the unequal distribution of resources, power, and opportunities between men and women within a society
-> often reflects broader social inequalities (wage gaps, political representation, access to education)
What are some examples of gender stratification in different societies?
- Matrilineal societies: Societies in which descent and inheritance are traced through the mother’s line, often resulting in more equitable gender relations. Example: The Minangkabau in Indonesia.
- Patriarchal societies: Societies where men hold primary power, and women are often excluded from political and social authority. Example: Traditional patrilineal societies in many parts of the world, where men control property and decision-making.
What is patriarchy, and how does it manifest in societies?
Patriarchy is a political and social system in which men hold power and authority, often at the expense of women’s rights and freedoms.
-> woman may have lower social status, fewer legal rights, and limited access to resources
What is matrilineality, and how does it differ from matriarchy?
is a system where descent and inheritance are traced through the female line.
-> While it does not necessarily lead to matriarchy (where women hold political power), it often provides women with more influence over family and community matters
What is matriarchy?
Matriarchy refers to a political system where women hold the primary positions of power and authority.
What do anthropologists study regarding the relationship between gender and power?
how gender roles and expectations shape access to resources, influence, and authority within a society
What are the concepts of patrilocality and matrilocality in terms of marriage residence patterns?
- Patrilocality: A system where a married couple resides with or near the husband’s family. This pattern is common in patriarchal societies and often reinforces male dominance.
- Matrilocality: A system where a married couple resides with or near the wife’s family, which can give women more influence within the household.
How do industrial societies impact gender roles and stratification?
gender roles have historically been defined by the separation of productive labor (typically male) from domestic work (typically female)
-> economic changes such as wars, inflation and increased demand for labor have lead to shifts
-> woman entering workforce in large numbers
What is the concept of gender roles in agricultural societies?
In many agricultural societies, there is a clear gender division of labor, with men typically involved in more physically demanding tasks like plowing and women responsible for domestic tasks or food processing.
How do anthropologists study gender across cultures?
use comparative studies to examine how different societies define and enforce gender roles
-> investigate how gender intersects with other social categories (such as age, race, class) to understand complexities of gender identity and social movements
What is the role of gender stereotypes in maintaining gender inequality?
they reinforce traditional gender roles by promoting the belief that men and women have “natural” characteristics suited to different tasks
-> contribute to systemic gender inequality
How do gender norms and roles change over time?
evolve in response to economic, political and social changes
What is the anthropological definition of religion?
a cultural universal - found in all human societies
-> can be defined as a system of beliefs and practices concerning the supernatural
-> involves social divisions within and between societies
What did Burnett Tylor say about the Function of religion?
Explains the ‘supernatural’
What is Magic?
supernatural techniques intended to accomplish specific aims
- spells, formulas, incantations
What is Imitative magic and Contagious magic?
- Imitative magic: whatever happens to an image of someone / similar will also happen to them (voodoo doll)
- Contagious magic: whatever is done to an object is believed to affect a person who once have contact with (spell with persons hair)
What other needs does Religion serve for?
emotional and cognitive needs
-> helps to face death and endure life crisis
What are Rituals?
Formal –stylized, repetitive, and stereotyped- sequences of behavior, based on a liturgical order.
- Performed in sacred places and at set times.
- Translate enduring messages, values, and sentiments into action.
-> often collective, can be sacred or secular
What is the difference between magic and religion in anthropological terms?
- Magic: Refers to the use of supernatural techniques to influence outcomes in the natural world
- Religion: Involves organized systems of beliefs and practices that often address broader existential questions, communal values, and long-term spiritual concerns.
What are rites of passage?
rituals marking the transition from one social status to another (e.g., birth, adulthood, marriage, death)
What are the 3 main phases of rites of passage?
- Separation: The individual is detached from their previous status or role.
- Liminality: The period between states, where the individual is “betwixt and between” their old status and their new one
- Incorporation: The individual is reintroduced to society in their new status
What is the role of myths in religion?
narrative stories that explain the origins, history, and values of a religion or culture
What are shamanic religions?
are characterized by the presence of shamans, who are part-time religious figures that mediate between people and supernatural forces or beings
- serve as healers, diviners or spiritual guides
(often involve animistic beliefs)
What are communal religions/Polytheism? How do they differ from shamanic religions?
Polytheism: belief in several deities who control some aspects of nature
-> typical of farming societies (taoism, shinto, santeria)
What are Olympian religions?
arose with state-level societies and marked social stratification.
-> involve full-time religious specialists or priesthoods who conduct elaborate rituals on behalf of the society
-> often polytheistic
What are monotheistic religions, and how are they distinct from other religious forms?
- believe in the existence of a single, all-powerful deity who is omniscient, omnipotent, and omnipresent
- highly structured priesthood
What are the roles of symbols in religion?
to convey meaning and reinforce social values.
What is the concept of revitalization movements in religion?
Revitalization movements are social and religious movements that seek to reform or revitalize a society in times of stress, oppression, or rapid change.
-> often emerge in response to social, political or economic crises
What are the 5 major religions?
Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Judaism, Islam
What are the 5 major religions?
Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Judaism, Islam
