Unit 1 Flashcards
Concept of Culture
What is Anthropology?
the study of the human species and its immediate ancestors
What does Anthropology help us understand?
it helps us to understand what it means to be human
What aspect of humanity does anthropology focus on?
Human diversity in time and space
What perspective is anthropology based on?
cross-cultural perspective
How does culture influence human development?
it affects it :)
Why do we consider culture to be ‘invisible’?
it is often ‘invisible’ until it is placed in comparison with another culture
What type of science is anthropology?
a holistic, relativistic, and comparative science that explains the whole of the human condition
What does holism mean in anthropology? What does it include?
comprehensive approach of understanding experience as a whole
-> past, present, future
-> biology, society, language and culture
What is cultural relativism?
Cultural relativism is the practice of studying cultures from their own perspective, without judgments.
-> philosophy of modern anthropology
How does the philosophy of modern anthropology contrast with ethnocentrism?
The philosophy of modern anthropology emphasizes understanding cultures from their own perspectives, rather than judging them based on one’s own cultural standards.
What is Comparison in Anthropology?
Comparing ancient and modern ages and simple and complex societies
What is human diversity?
The result of the huge human adaptability
What does the subject matter of anthropology include?
includes the study of human beings, their behaviors, cultures, and societies throughout history and across different contexts.
Where and when do anthropologists study human beings?
wherever and whenever
What aspect of human diversity is of particular interest to anthropologists?
the diversity that comes through human adaptability
What are the 3 human basic attributes?
Creativity
Adaptability
Flexibility
What do humans want? (basic human attributes)
Wishes to know the unknown, control the uncontrollable, and create order out of chaos find expression among all peoples.
What does Adaptation refer to?
the processes by which organism cope with environmental forces and stresses
Which 2 means does adaptation include?
biological means
cultural means
What is biological adaptation?
Physical changes in response to environmental stresses, such as changes in skin color or body temperature regulation.
What is cultural adaptation?
The knowledge and behaviors acquired through culture that enable humans to survive and thrive in different environments.
What does the knowledge or behavior of adaptation enables humans to do?
to adjust, survive, and thrive in the environment
Where do we obtain the knowledge or behavior of adaptation from?
from culture
What is an example of Adaptation?
Adaptation to high altitude
which forms of adaptation are there in the example of adaptation to high altitude?
- Technology
- Genetic adaptation
- long-term physiological adaptation
- short-term physiological adaptation
What are examples for each type of adaptation in the example of adaptation to high altitude?
- Technology -> airplane cabin with oxygen masks
- Genetic adaptation -> larger ‘barrel chests’ of native highlanders
- long-term physiological adaptation -> more efficient respiratory systems to extract oxygen from thin air
- short-term physiological adaptation -> increased heart rate, hyperventilation
What are universalities in anthropology?
something that exists in every culture
What are generalities in anthropology?
Culture pattern or trait that exists in some but not all societies
What are particularities in anthropology?
Distinctive or unique traits, pattern or integrations
What are examples for biological based universals?
- Infant dependency
- complex brain functions that enable us to use symbols, language and tools
What distinguishes Homo sapiens from other species?
biological based universals
What are psychological universals?
Common ways in which humans thinks, feel and process information
What are examples of social universals?
- Social interactions
- Family living
- Food sharing
What are universal taboos in culture?
Exogamy and Incest
What is Exogamy?
Marrying someone from the family
How are societies connected through generalities in anthropology?
Societies can share the same beliefs and customs through cultural inheritance or cultural diffusion (cultural borrowing) from a common cultural ancestor
How do societies share the same beliefs and customs in anthropology?
Societies can share the same beliefs and customs through cultural inheritance or cultural diffusion (cultural borrowing) from a common cultural ancestor
What is an example of a cultural generality?
The nuclear family is an example of a generality, as it is present in many societies but not in all.
How is the nuclear family related to larger kinship groups?
The nuclear family is often submerged within larger kinship groups, such as extended families, lineages, and clans.
How do different cultures reflect particularities?
Different cultures emphasize different things, and they are integrated and patterned uniquely, displaying tremendous variation and diversity.
How is the term ‘diversity’ commonly used today?
The term ‘diversity’ is often used to refer to positive attributes like variety in race, culture, ideas, and perspectives, with a focus on maintaining and increasing this variety.
What are the fields of anthropology?
Archeology
Sociocultural anthropology
Biological anthropology
Linguistic anthropology
What does an Archeologist do?
Reconstructs, describes, and interprets human behavior and cultural patterns through material remains.
What are tasks of archeologists?
- They visit sites where people live or have lived.
- They find find artifacts such as tools, weapons, camp sites, buildings, and garbage.
- Plant and animal remains (fossils).
- They infer how people lived.
What is the focus of biological (or physical) anthropology?
focuses on human biological diversity in time and space
What are the 5 special interests within biological anthropology?
- human evolution (as revealed by the fossil record)
- human genetics
- human growth and development
- human biological plasticity
- the biology, evolution, behavior and social life of monkeys, apes and other nonhuman primates
what is the study of human evolution as revealed by the fossil record called?
paleo-anthropology
How does biological anthropology approach human genetics?
Biological anthropology includes the study of human genetics to understand hereditary variations and evolutionary changes.
What is human biological plasticity?
Human biological plasticity refers to the body’s ability to change and adapt to stresses such as heat, cold, and altitude.
What does linguistic anthropology study?
studies language in its social and cultural context, across space and over time
How do some linguistic anthropologists study language universals?
they make inferences about universal features of language, linked perhaps to uniformities in the human brain.
How do linguistic anthropologists reconstruct ancient languages?
by comparing their contemporary descendants and in so doing make discoveries about history.
Why do linguistic anthropologists study linguistic differences?
to discover varied perceptions and patterns of thought in different cultures.
What is the objective of sociocultural anthropology?
Sociocultural anthropology describes, analyzes, interprets, and explains social and cultural similarities and differences.
What does social anthropology focus on?
Social anthropology focuses on understanding human societies and their structures, such as social norms, relationships, and institutions.
There are two means in social anthropology, which ones?
Ethnography and Ethnology
What does ethnography require?
field work to collect data
is ethnography descriptive or synthetic?
it is often descriptive, focusing on detailed observations of a specific group or community.
How does ethnology collect data?
Ethnology uses data collected by a series of researchers, often pulling from multiple studies.
Is ethnology descriptive or synthetic?
is usually synthetic, meaning it involves synthesizing information from various sources to compare and analyze cultural patterns.
-> cross-cultural
What is applied anthropology?
the application of anthropological data, perspectives, methods, and theories to identify, assess, and solve contemporary social problems.
What are some areas where applied anthropology is used?
areas like public health, family planning, business, economic development, and cultural resources management.
What is the difference between academic anthropology and applied anthropology?
Academic anthropology focuses on teaching and research, while applied anthropology focuses on practical solutions to real-world issues.
How do applied medical anthropologists view health?
as a combination of sociocultural and biological factors
How do perceptions of health differ according to applied medical anthropologists?
Perceptions of good and bad health differ across cultures, leading to different understandings of illness, symptoms, and causes, as well as different treatments and health-care systems.
What are some values in applied anthropology?
Familiarity
Solidarity
Tradition
Accessibility
Social responsibility
Where do most psychologists conduct their research?
in their own society
Why can’t statements about “human” psychology be based solely on one society?
Statements about “human” psychology cannot be based solely on one society because human behavior and psychology vary across different cultures.
What does the area of cultural anthropology known as psychological anthropology study?
cross-cultural variation in psychological traits
How do societies instill different values?
by training children differently
What do adult personalities reflect?
a culture’s child-rearing practices
What is the relationship between psychological anthropology and cross-cultural psychology?
Psychological anthropology and cross-cultural psychology both explore how psychology is influenced by cultural context.
How is psychology influenced according to psychological anthropology?
Psychology is molded in a specific cultural context, meaning that cultural factors significantly shape psychological traits and behaviors.
What is culture?
Set of beliefs, practices, and symbols that are learned and shared. They form an all-encompassing, integrated whole that binds people together and shapes their worldview and lifeways
What are beliefs?
mental aspects of culture (values, norms, philosophies, worldview, knowledge)
What are Practices?
Behaviors and actions that may be motivated by belief or performed without reflection as part of everyday routines.
What are Symbols?
Something, verbal or non-verbal, that stands for something else, often without an obvious or natural connection.
How does culture differ from society?
Culture is a set of learned behaviors, beliefs, and values shared by a group, while society refers to a group of people or animals who interact within a specific social structure.
What utility does culture provide to a society?
Culture produces a degree of consistency in behavior and thought among the people who live in a particular society.
How does culture guide individual development?
Culture guides emotional, cognitive, and behavioral growth, influencing how individuals develop and interact.
In what ways does culture determine personality?
Culture shapes personality by influencing values, norms, and behaviors that individuals adopt as part of their socialization.
What biological aspects are related to culture?
learning, abstract thinking, language, and procedural abilities.
Is culture learned?
Yes, through a unique process known as enculturation
What distinguishes human learning from animal learning?
Humans have a uniquely elaborated capacity to learn through the use of symbols—signs that have no necessary or natural connection to what they signify.
How is culture transmitted through observation?
as children modify their behavior based on what their culture considers right and wrong, such as saying “please” and “thank you.”
What is Bandura’s Social Learning Theory?
that individuals learn behaviors by observing others and imitating their actions, emphasizing the role of social context in learning.
How does culture impact psychological processes?
Culture influences how individuals define their world, express their feelings, and make judgments, guiding their behavior and perceptions throughout their lives.
What is Enculturation?
The process by which culture is learned and transmitted across the generations.
What is an example of enduring shared enculturation?
As children, when we didn’t finish a meal, our parents may have reminded us of starving children in some foreign country, just as our grandparents might have
done a generation earlier.
How do people learn culture?
People gradually internalize a previously established system of meanings and symbols, which shapes their understanding of the world.
What do Anthropologists agree on?
that cultural learning is uniquely elaborated among humans and that all humans have culture
Do all human populations have the same capacity for culture?
Yes, all human populations have equivalent capacities for culture, regardless of genetic or physical differences.
What can people learn regardless of their genes or appearance?
People can learn any cultural tradition, regardless of their genes or physical appearance.
What defines the origin of culture as symbolic?
Culture became symbolic when our ancestors acquired the ability to use symbols.
What elements make up culture?
Culture consists of tools, implements, utensils, clothing, ornaments, customs, institutions, beliefs, rituals, games, works of art, language, etc.
What is a symbol in the context of culture?
A symbol is a verbal or nonverbal representation within a particular language or culture that stands for something else.
Is there an obvious natural connection between a symbol and what it symbolizes?
No
What is an example of cultural symbols and its significance?
Holy water symbol in roman Catholicism
What are the 2 types of symbols?
Linguistic symbols and non-verbal symbols
What are for example linguistic symbols?
‘dog’, ‘Hund’, ‘chien’
What is an example for non-verbal symbols?
Flags, etc.
What is a key characteristic of culture?
Culture is shared among individuals as members of groups, not just an individual attribute.
How does shared culture link people?
It links people who live and grow up in the same culture, providing common experiences such as beliefs, expectations, and memories.
How is culture connected to nature?
it takes the natural biological urges we share with other animals and teaches us how to express them in particular ways.
What are examples for differences in culture?
eating habits or variation in bathroom habits
What does anthropology and the process of enculturation also consider?
‘popular’ culture
Are cultures just collections of customs and beliefs?
No
What kind of systems are cultures?
integrated, patterned systems
What are core values in America in the context of culture?
the work ethic and individualism are core values that have integrated American culture for generations
What are two examples of core values that have integrated American culture?
The work ethic and individualism are core values that have integrated American culture for generations.
What can culture be?
adaptive or maladaptive
How has human reliance on adaptation evolved over time?
it has increased during human evolution
Can cultural traits and inventions be maladaptive?
Yes, cultural traits, patterns, and inventions can be maladaptive, threatening the survival and reproduction of a group.
What is an example of a maladaptive cultural invention?
Cars - chemical emissions increase air pollution threat to environmental and human health
What does the human capacity for culture has?
an evolutionary basis
How long has the human capacity for culture had an evolutionary basis?
extends back at least 2.6 million years.
What are the similarities between humans and the African great apes (chimpanzees and gorillas)?
Humans and African great apes share similarities in anatomy, brain structure, genetics, and biochemistry.
What are human traits that we have from our ancestors?
- Grasping
- Depth and color vision
- Learning ability based on a large brain
- Parental investment in a limited number of offspring
- Tendencies toward socialization and cooperation
What does manual dexterity refer to? How does it benefit primates?
Manual dexterity refers to the ability to grasp objects, especially with opposable thumbs, allowing primates to pick up small objects, hold them in front of their eyes, and appraise them.
What feature allows primates, including humans, to grasp objects effectively?
Opposable thumbs
How do manual dexterity and depth perception work together?
The combination of manual dexterity and depth perception allows primates to pick up small objects, hold them in front of their eyes, and assess them closely.
What is one major human adaptive capacity?
tool making
How does the brain size of primates and humans compare to other mammals?
the ratio of brain size to body size exceed that of most mammals
What part of the brain is relatively larger in primates and humans, and what is its function?
The brain’s outer layer, which is concerned with memory, association, and integration, is relatively larger in primates and humans
What adaptive advantage does the human brain’s capacity for learning provide?
tremendous adaptive advantage, allowing them to develop and pass down complex cultural knowledge.
Why do humans need longer and more attentive parental care?
Human offspring require longer and more attentive care due to their extended developmental period, which is supported by a social group.
How have humans developed the primate tendency to be social animals?
by living and interacting regularly with other members of their species.
What is the gap between humans and primates?
Symbolic thought
what are similarities among humans and primates?
- Ability to learn from experiences and change behavior.
- Tool use.
- Hunting.
what are differences among humans and primates?
- Cooperation and sharing are much more developed among humans.
- Mating (Marriage, exogamy and kinship systems).
- Humans maintain lifelong ties with sons and daughters.
What does ‘System’ refer to in Anthropology?
culture, society, social relations,
and social structure. The system shapes the way individuals experience and respond to external events.
What role do ‘Individuals’ play in Anthropology?
They constitute the system. They play an active role in the way society functions and changes
What is the difference between ideal culture and real culture?
ideal culture consist of what people say they SHOULD do.
real culture refers to their ACTUAL behavior as observed in a natural context
What does practice theory describe according to Ordner (1984)
different degrees of power and influence individuals have
What are different degrees of power and influence individuals are often associated with?
gender, age, ethnicity, class, and other social variables
What does practice theory focus on?
how such varied individuals manage to influence, create, and transform the world they live in
What shapes individual experience and what role do individuals play in the way society functions?
the system shapes how individuals experience and respond to external events
-> individuals also play an active role in the way society functions and changes
what kind of relationship does the system and the individual have in practice theory?
reciprocal relationship
What are the 3 different levels of culture?
International
National
Subcultures
What is the international level of culture?
Cultural traditions that extend beyond and across national boundaries.
Result of diffusion, migration, common histories, multinationals…
What is the national level of culture?
Beliefs, learned behavior patterns, values, and institutions that are shared by citizens of the same nation.
What is the subculture level of culture?
Symbol-based patterns and traditions associated with particular groups in the same complex society.
What is Ethnocentrism?
Tendency to view one’s own culture as superior and to use one’s own standards and values in judging outsiders.
What is cultural relativism?
In order to understand another culture fully, we must try to understand how the people in that culture see things.
What are human rights?
Realm of justice and morality beyond and superior to particular countries, cultures, and religions.
Why and how do cultures change?
Through diffusion, acculturation and independent invention
What is diffusion?
Borrowing of cultural traits between societies (e.g.: location, generation, religion, food, language, clothing, etc.)
What is a common diffusion nowadays?
transnational diffusion (mass media and advanced information technology)
there are 3 types of diffusion, which ones?
Direct, Forced and Indirect
What is direct diffusion?
Two adjacent cultures.
-> e.g.: between the United States and Canada, where the people living on the border of these two countries engage in hockey, which started in Canada, and baseball, which is popular in American culture
What is forced diffusion?
One culture subjugates another and imposes its customs on the dominated group.
e.g.: forced Christianization of the indigenous peoples of the Americas by the Spanish, French, English, and Portuguese.
what is indirect diffusion?
Items move from A to C via B.
e.g.: presence of Mexican food in Canada since a large territory (the United States) lies between.
What is Enculturation?
The gradual acquisition of the characteristics and norms of a culture or group by a person or another culture.
What is Acculturation?
An exchange of cultural features between groups.
What is Enculturation essential for?
survival
is acculturation essential for survival?
no
What is the definition of acculturation?
it is the process of adapting and incorporating aspects of a new culture when individuals or communities are exposed to it. it involves retaining some elements of one’s original culture while embracing and adopting elements of the new culture
What are examples of acculturation?
- Learning A New Language
- Adopting New Customs
- Changing Dress And Appearance
What is Independent invention?
A process by which humans innovate, creatively finding solutions to problems
what is one reason cultural generalities exist?
people in different societies have innovated and changed in similar ways
What is one example of independent invention?
agriculture in Middle East and Mexico
What is Globalization in terms of cultural change?
Globalization is a series of processes, including diffusion and acculturation, that promote change in a world where nations and people are increasingly interlinked and mutually dependent.
What forces promote linkages between nations and people in globalization?
Economic and political forces, along with modern systems of transportation and communication, promote the linkages in globalization
