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Anatomy & Physiology > Unit 2 - Skeletal System > Flashcards

Unit 2 - Skeletal System Flashcards

1
Q

Function of bone

A

Support: framework
Protection: surrounds organs
Leverage: muscle site attachments
blood cell production : ‘hematopoiesis’
mineral storage: esp. calcium (required for contraction, milk, clotting)

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2
Q

bone characteristics

A

2nd hardest body substance (enamel first)
can remodel and repair itself
made up of cells in matrix

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3
Q

bone cell life cycle

A

start as osteoblasts
produce matrix of collagen + ground substance
blasts harden the matrix by adding crystalline calcium and phosphate salts (ossification)
blasts become trapped in small spaces in matrix (lacunae)
blasts now considered ‘osteoctyes’

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4
Q

hormones controlling calcium

A

calcitonin: thyroid gland, prevents blood levels from getting too high by placing calcium in bones

parathyroid hormone: parathyroid glands, prevents blood levels from getting too low by removing calcium from bones

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5
Q

osteoblasts

A

form bone
- secrete matrix
- add minerals to ossify

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6
Q

osteocytes

A

blasts trapped in the ossified matrix

  • revert back if needed (injury)
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7
Q

osteoclasts

A

eat away bone

  • allow body to withdraw calcium for use
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8
Q

2 bone types

A

compact
cancellous (spongy)

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9
Q

parts of a long bone

A
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10
Q

compact bone

A

dense
shaft of long bones, outside of all
permeated by microscopic framework of tunnels, channels (nourish bone) surrounded by hard matrix

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11
Q

osteon/haversian system

A

functional + structural unit of compact bone
1-2 capillaries
around each central haversian canal are concentric rings of matrix (‘lamellae’)
small hollow cvaities (lacunae) between lamellae
series of tiny hollow tunnels (canaliculi) join central (haversian) canal to lacunae + lacunae to each other, nourish
groups of osteons in parallel arrangement
perforating volkmann’s canals penetrate bone and connect haversian canals to osteons

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12
Q

cancellous bone

A

continues on from compact bone, no clear demarcation
less histologically organized
trabeculae AKA spicules: series of branching plates of matrix, interconnect and make caves that store fat (bone marrow) - reduce weight of bone - supports from pulling forces - punctuated by lacunae and blood vessels (nourshment)

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13
Q

long bone

A

longer in one direction
levers, support, site for muscle attachment

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14
Q

parts of long bone

A

p 177

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15
Q

epiphyses

A

enlarged ends of long bones
primarily made of cancellous bone

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16
Q

diaphysis

A

shaft of long bones
mostly compact

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17
Q

epiphyseal plate (growth plate)

A

between epi + diaphysis
layer of dividing cartilage
ossifies with age, weak until then

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18
Q

periosteum

A

fibrous membrane covering compact bone (except at articular surfaces)
anchored by collagen fibers embedded in outer lamellae

fibrous outer layer + inner osteogenic layer (new bone-forming cell source)

important for healing and growth of diameter

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19
Q

endosteum

A

lines inner surface of bone
contains osteoblasts
assists healing

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20
Q

articular cartilage

A

smooth layer of hyaline cartilage on articular surfaces of epiphysis
reduces joint friction

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21
Q

short bones

A

cuboid
no marrow cavity, just cancellous

absorb shock

eg. tarsus

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22
Q

flat bones

A

protect organs
attachment for large muscle groups.

eg. ribsm scapula, pelvis, cranial

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23
Q

irregular bones

A

anything thats not long, short, or flat

sesamoid (embedded in tendon, eg patella, fabellae)

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24
Q

condyles

A

large round
mainly in femur, humerus, occipital

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25
Q

head

A

single spherical portion @ prxoimal epiphysis of humerus, femur, ribs

‘ball’ of ball and socket joints
united to shaft by a ‘neck’

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26
Q

facet

A

flat, allows for rocking

in carpal/tarsal, vertebrae

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27
Q

processes

A

general term for bumps, the greater the process the more powerful muscular pull

articulating processes: heads, condyles (smooth)

non articulating: site for attachment (rough surface)

eg. trochanter on femur, tubercle on humerus

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28
Q

foramen

A

hole for nerve/vessel to pass

except obturator foramen (largest in body) which exists to decrease pelvis weight

29
Q

fossa

A

depressed area

usually for muscles/tendons

30
Q

bone blood supply

A

from vessels in periosteum
penetrate through volkmanns canals (run at right angles to long bones) -> haversain canals (run parallel), allows for nutrition to osteocytes

nutrient foramen: large channel of blood vessels -> marrow

31
Q

bone marrow

A

fills space in diaphysis of long and spicules of cancellous

red
yellow

32
Q

red marrow

A

hematopoietic
young animals
smaller parts in older animals (end of long bones, pelvis, sternum)

33
Q

yellow marrow

A

mostly adipose
adults
doesn’t make blood cells, but can revert to red if needed

34
Q

endochondral bone formation

A

grows into and replaces cartilage framework

most common, how bones grow in fetus
begin ossifying at center of long bone (primary growth center)
epiphysis = secondary growth center
body lays down cartilage on epi side of growth plate, blasts ossify it on the diaphyseal side
epihyseal plates ossify too once animal mature (‘united anoconeal process’ = elbow problem in large dogs)

*why new puppies can’t have vigorous exercise

35
Q

intramembranous bone formation

A

develops from fibrous tissue membranes

happens in some skull bones
fiber covers brain of fetus, then ossified

36
Q

bone homeostasis

A

bones constantly remodelling
osteoclasts destroy bone (allows for rebuild)
blasts build bone
mineral levels controlled by hormones

37
Q

bone building minerals + vitamins

A

calcium + phosphorous
magneisum
manganese
copper

Vit D, A

38
Q

bone building hormones

A

parathyroid hormone
- increases blood calcium levels (stimulates release from bone)
- inhibits calcium excretion by kidneys
- stimulates calcium absorption in intestine

calcitriol (vit D)
- increases calcium
- inhibits calcium excretion by kidneys
- stimulates absorption of calcium by intestine

calcitonin
- decreases
- inhibits release of calcium from bone
- stimulates calcium excretion by kidneys

growth hormone:
- general tissue growth
- stimulates epiphyseal cartilage
- stimulates calcium excretion by kidneys
- stimulates calcium absorption by intestine

insulin
- bone formation

sex hormones (estrogen + testosterone)
- stop longitudinal growth by degenration epiphyseal plates
- bone formation
- estrogen prevents osteoporosis

glucocorticoids (cortisol + aldosterone)
- suppresses calcium absorption
- decreases blood calcium concentrations
- weakens bone

39
Q

3 dog skull types

A

dolicocephalic: long (collie)
mesocephalic: moderate (lab)
brachycephalic: short (pug, also persian cats)

40
Q

bracycephalic

A

defective teeth (over crowding)
difficulty breathing (distorted nasal bones)
shallow eye sockets
dystocia (difficult birth)

41
Q

cornual process

A

horn in cattle that extends into frontal sinus
dehorning can result in frontal sinus being exposed to infection

42
Q

horse turbinates

A

prone to bleeding when passing stomach tube through

43
Q

spine developmental issues

A

spina bifida: cleft/space in dorsal part of vertebral column

hemi vertebrae: failure of vertebral body to ossify -> improperly formed.

curvature of spine

wobblers (cervical vertebral instability): narrowing of spinal canal in cervical region, compresses spinal cord, caused by genetics/growth rate
- common in horses and great danes
- signs: ataxia (uncoordination), looks wobbly
- can progress to paralysis

44
Q

angular limb deformities in foals

A

congenital or acquired neonatal
- usually affects carpus
- can be distal radial physis/growth plate (tarsus)
- cause distal portion of limb to deviate either laterally or medially

45
Q

premature closure of physis (growth plate)

A

usually radius and ulna
causes bowing

46
Q

mandible species differences

A

dogs + cats: 2 sides united by cartilaginous joint ‘mandibular symphysis’.

horse: fused

47
Q

scapula species differences

A

well developed in ungulates

poorly developed in carnivores

48
Q

radius and ulna species differences

A

cat + dog: separate

horse + ruminants: fused

49
Q

carpus species differences

A

generally 8 bones.

cat + dog: radial and intermediate fused.
ruminants: 1st missing, 2nd and 3rd fused
horse: 1st MAY be missing

50
Q

metacarpal species differences

A

5, numbered 1-5 medial -> lateral

carnivore: MC 1 non-weight bearing
ruminants: MC 1 + 2 missing, 3 + 4 fused ‘cannon’, MC 5 vestigial (no digit)
horse: MC 1 + 5 missing, 2 + 4 reduced ‘splint’, MC 3 only weight supporting digit (cannon)

51
Q

digits species differences

A

carnivores: 2 3 4 5 bear weight
ruminants: 3 4 bear weight, 2 5 vestigial remnants
horse: 3 bears weight (P1: long pastern, P2: short pastern, P3: coffin)

52
Q

sesamoid bone - horse

A

proximal ones in fetlock region (distal MC and proximal phalanx junction)

distal one (‘navicular’) junction of middle and distal phalanx

53
Q

femur species differences

A

trochlear tubercle: very prominent in horse (part of stay apparatus)
greater trochanter of horse divided into cranial and caudal

54
Q

tibia/fibula species differences

A

carnivores: 2 distinct bones

ruminants: fibula poorly developed but head fused to tibia, distal epiphysis separate

horse: fibula poorly developed, head separate from tibia, distal epiphysis fused

55
Q

tarsus species differences

A

2 rows, 5-7 bones

ruminant: central and T4 fused, T2 T3 separate

horse: T1 T2 fused

56
Q

metatarsal species differences

A

carnivores: MT1 even smaller than MC1

ruminants: MT5 missing, MT 3 4 fused

feline: metatarsal much longer than metacarpals

57
Q

digits

A

horse: distal phalanx (coffin) longer + less rounded

carnivores: 1st digit (dewcaw) usually absent, but MAY be present or even double

58
Q

joints

A

union or junction of 2+ bones
arthro = joints

fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial

59
Q

fibrous joints

A

bones held together by fibrous tissue
no movement
often ossify with age (fibrous only when young)

eg. suture between skull bones

60
Q

cartilaginous joints

A

bones held by cartilage
slight rocking/gliding movement

eg. intervertebral discs, pelvic symphysis, mandibular symphysis

61
Q

synovial joint (diarthrodial) parts

A

freely moving
made of articular cartilage, joint cavity, joint capsule, ligaments

articular cartilage: covers ends of bones, cushioning, smooth (reduces friction)

joint cavity: space in joint with synovial fluid

joint capsule: 2 layers -
outer: fibrous tissue membrane
inner: synovial membrane, makes fluid
synovial fluid: transparent, lubricates joint

ligaments: bone to bone
- intracapsular: inside joint capsule
- extracapsular: outside capsule or forming part of capsule

meniscus: cartilaginous pad in stifle joint and in mandibular joint

62
Q

synovial joint types

A

hinge/ginglymus joint: flex + extend, sagittal plane movement only (eg. elbow)

gliding/arthrodial: flex/extend + ad/abduction. rocking movement (eg. carpus).

pivot/trochoid: ‘no’ joint, rotates (eg. only in atlantoaxial joint)

ball + socket/spheroidal: all directions (eg. shoulder, hip)

63
Q

anatomical vs common joint names

A

humeral = shoulder
cubital = elbow
carpus
metacarpophalangeal = fetlock
proximal interphalangeal = pastern
distal interphalangeal = coffin
coxal = hip
genual = stifle
tarsus = hock

64
Q

joint movement types

A

flexion: decrease angle (bends)
extension: increase angle (straightens)
hyperextension: bending increases beyond a straight line (equine fetlock in normal standing position)

adduction: towards body
abduction: away from body

rotation: twisting on axis (eg. rotating wrist)
circumduction: only distal end of limb moves (eg. finger circles)

65
Q

joint injuries

A

luxation (dislocation): one+ segments of joint out of place
- usually traumatic: includes stretching/tearing of ligaments
- can also have conformational/developmental component

subluxation: partial dislocation
- usually traumatic

sprain = ligaments stretched but joint not discolated
strain = tendon/muscle damage from stretching

cuts/punctures: loss of synovial fluid and high risk of infection

infections: traumatic or blood borne
- cause inflammation (arthritis)

arthritis:
- acute: from trauma/infection
usually involves 1 joint (eg. popped knees, traumatic carpitis)
- chronic: usually degenerative osteoarthritis. most common type. usually in older animals from chronic repeated stress (eg. hip dysplasia)
- common causes: trauma, immune mediated, infectious -> always causes severe lameness

66
Q

joint disease

A

intervertebral disc disease: degeneration of 1+ discs, causes bulging of fibrous covering OR complete rupture of contents
- presses against spinal cord dorsal to disc
- usually occurs in thoracolumbar areas
- common in chondrodysplastic dogs (daschunds)
- cause pain, paralysis, numbness
- surgery or cage rest

osteochondrosis dissecans (OCD): problem with formation of bone under articular cartilage
- cartilage abnormally thickened, can separate
- makes partially attached ‘saucer-shaped’ flap which doesn’t reattach and heal because joint moves
- flap often torn loose -> floats in joint capsule
- flap can grow thanks to synovial fluid nourishing it
- usually shoulder (can be in elbow, stifle, hock)
- usually giant breeds (presents as puppies) and horses
- cause unknown, hereditary
- surgery or rest

humeroradioulnar dysplasia
- OCD one type
- ununited anconeal process another type:
- ossification failure of center of anconeal process - doesn’t fuse with ulna
- hereditary in large breed dogs
- unstable joint -> osteoarthritis can develop
- surgical removal of fragments

aseptic necrosis (legg-calve-perthe disease)
- spontaneous necrosis of femoral head
- unknown cause, very painful
- young small breed dogs
- surgery

hip dysplasia:
- multifactorial: combo of hereditary, injury as puppy, obesity, too-rapid growth
- acetabulum shallow, femoral head moves too much
- causes osteophyte (flattened femoral head) and osteoarthritis
- prevention: selective breeding, don’t over-feed large puppies, no slippery floors and excessive stairs for puppies
- NSAIDs, femoral head osteotomy, or hip replacement

patellar luxation:
- causes: hereditary in toy breeds, shallow femoral trochlea, medial luxation (cranial cruciate may rupture, some develop secondary arthritis)
- surgery or rest

rupture of cruciate ligaments of stifle:
- usually involves cranial cruciate in dogs
- often comes with rupture of medial collateral ligament
- joint instability can be demonstrated by ‘drawer sign’ = ability to slide tibia cranial to femur

67
Q

fractures

A

simple: skin intact

compound: external wound (either bone protrudes or external wound intrudes)

comminuted: 2+ pieces.

incomplete/greenstick: bends and tears partially (young animals)

68
Q

fracture healing

A

fix/immobilize
- fracture hematoma forms -> osteoblasts invade area and form callus -> calcium deposited, mineralizes callus -> initial healing complete -> months-years of remodeling to restore

Anatomy & Physiology (16 decks)

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