Unit 2 - Criminological theories - 4.2 Explain how social changes affect policy development

Question 1

Social values, norms and mores

What are values?

Answer 1

General principles, beliefs or guidelines about how we should live our lives, they tell us what is right and wrong

Question 2

What are norms?

Answer 2

Specific rules or socially accepted standards about how we are expected to behave in specific situations

Question 3

Give an example of an informal norm

Answer 3

Not queue jumping

Question 4

Give an example of a formal norm

Answer 4

The law that says you must not drive with more than a certain level of alcohol in your blood

Question 5

What are mores?

Answer 5

Very basic, essential norms that society sees as vital for maintaining standards of decency and civilised behaviour

Question 6

Explain two examples of mores

Answer 6

• Taboo against incest

- The prohibition against taking human life other than in very exceptional circumstances

Question 7

Public perception of crime : drink driving

Briefly explain why changes in society’s culture can lead to a change in laws

Answer 7

Changes in society’s culture shifts its norms and values which affects the publics perception on crime - an act that used to be acceptable may now be seen as wrong by today’s values

Question 8

Outline how views about drink driving have changed

Answer 8

Over time, views about drink driving have changed and this had lead to changing in laws and policies. The public have come to see it as much more serious and the laws governing it have become tighter. In 1925, the first law was passed making drinking while drunk an offence. However, there was no clear definition of ‘drunk’ and no legal limit so police and courts had to decide whether was fit to drive. Public attitudes were quite tolerant and was thought of as a minor offence. The government showed little interest. In 1951 15% of households had cars but by 1971 55% owned cars. This resulted in more deaths, 5000 in 1950 to 8000 by 1960’s

Question 9

Changing perceptions

How did the changes in public’s perception of drink driving affect the legislation on seat belts?

Answer 9

In 1966 all new cars had to be fitted with seatbelts as road safety was becoming a public concern and high up on the political agenda

Question 10

How did the changes in public’s perception of drink driving affect the legislation on blood alcohol limits for driving?

Answer 10

1967 Road Safety Act introduced a blood alcohol limit of 80mg of alcohol per 100g of blood. This was because of public concern about accidents caused by drink driving. It became an offence to be in charge of a vehicle with an alcohol level above this limit

Question 11

Breathalysers

When were breathalysers introduced and what was the impact of their use?

Answer 11

1968 for roadside use. Together with a major advertising campaign by the government, this helped to reduce road deaths by over 1100 and serious injuries by 11000. Importantly, the proportion of accidents where alcohol was involved also fell from 25% to 15%

Question 12

Tougher laws

Briefly explain the High Risk Offender scheme?

Answer 12

Introduced for convicted drivers with an alcohol problem. This group includes drivers who have been disqualified more than once for drink driving. They now have to undergo a medical before they can get their license back

Question 13

What was the new offence introduced in 1991 and what was the penalty?

Answer 13

‘Causing death by driving under the influence of alcohol or drugs’ was introduced and was punishable by up to 5 years in prison (in 2014 this was increased to 14 years). The penalty for a first drink driving offence is now up to 6 months imprisonment and driving ban for a year with heavier penalties for repeat offenders

Question 14

What was the impact of the new laws and tougher sentences relating to drink driving?

Answer 14

Deaths from accidents involving alcohol have been falling over the long term, largely due to the tighter restrictions on drink driving. Now about 5% of road accidents involved alcohol

Question 15

Campaigns

What was the impact of campaigns against drink driving?

Answer 15

Changing the public perception of drink driving as a crime

Question 16

Briefly describe how statistics show that people’s attitudes to drink driving have changed

Answer 16

In 1979, half of all male drivers admitted to drink driving at least once a week. However, by 2014 91% agreed that drink driving was unacceptable and 92% they would feel ashamed if they got caught drink driving

Question 17

What is the campaign ‘Brake’ calling for?

Answer 17

That the government needs to go further on their drink driving laws. 1/8 road deaths involve a driver over the alcohol limit and England and Wales have highest legal alcohol limit and Europe. Brake want the alcohol limit to be lowered to 20mg from 80mg. Their 2016 found that half of all drivers agreed with them

Question 18

Demographic changes - Immigration and racism

In 1945, how many non-whites residents were there in the UK?

Answer 18

Fewer than 20,000

Question 19

Briefly describe the demographic changes that occurred in the 1950’s and 1960’s

Answer 19

During the 1950’s and 1960’s, non-white immigrants came from former British colonies in the Caribbean, the Indian subcontinent and Africa. More recently, people have come from Eastern Europe. Mostly these groups are in search of economic opportunities, often filling jobs British people don’t want

Question 20

Where have immigrants to the UK come from since the 1960’s?

Answer 20

Caribbean, Africa, Indian subcontinent and Eastern Europe

Question 21

The Windrush Generation

Briefly explain why the ‘Windrush generation’ faced hostility when they first arrived to the UK

Answer 21

Many white people held racist stereotypes of Black people as dirty, diseased or criminal

Question 22

Briefly outline the evidence of the discrimination faced by immigrants in the 1950s and 1960s

Answer 22

• In 1956, a survey in Birmingham showed that only 1.5% of whites would be willing to let a room to a black tenant
• A BBC documentary found churches turning away black families to avoid upsetting white worshippers

Question 23

Describe an example of the impact of discrimination being legal in the 1950s and 1960s

Answer 23

At the time it was legal to discriminate against a person on grounds of race. This led to exploitation by landlords letting slum houses to immigrants, who frequently could only get low-paid, low-skilled jobs even when properly qualified

Question 24

The Race Relations Act

What was banned by the 1965 RRA?

Answer 24

Racial discrimination in public places and made the promotion of hatred on grounds of colour, race or ethnic or national origins an offence

Question 25

What was outlawed by the 1968 RRA?

Answer 25

Discrimination in the key areas of employment, housing and public services

Question 26

What is meant by direct discrimination?

Answer 26

When someone treats you less favourably than someone else for certain reasons, for example because of your skin colour or race

Question 27

What is meant by indirect discrimination?

Answer 27

When there is a policy or rule that applies to everyone, but it has a worse effect on some groups than others

Question 28

Briefly explain the 2010 Equality Act

Answer 28

Brought together laws on racial, sex, age and disability discrimination. It it overseen by the Equality and Human Rights Commission

Question 29

Cultural changes

Summarise the evidence for a decline in prejudice towards ethnic minorities

Answer 29

• 1987 British attitudes survey found that 39% of people said they were racialy prejudiced, whereas by 2017 this has fallen to 26%
• According to a 2018 survey by the British Future, 66% of over 65s in ethnic minorities said the level of racial prejudice today is lower than it was in 1968

Question 30

What were the reasons for the change in public perceptions of discrimination and race hate?

Answer 30

As a result of a change in attitudes, there has been a change in the public perception of discrimination and race hate as crimes. People are now more likely to accept that these should be criminal offences

Question 31

Reasons for the change

According to some psychologists, why might changes in law lead to changes in people’s attitudes?

Answer 31

If we are made to change our behaviour, we tend to change our attitudes to fit. Thus, if the law Is changed to forbid discrimination, people may abandon their prejudiced attitudes to bring them into line with how they are required to behave

Question 32

What other factors may be responsible for a decline in prejudice towards ethnic minorities?

Answer 32

The British Future Survey found that people thought children of different backgrounds mixing at school, and workplace contact with people from other ethnicities, were both more important than race relations laws in improving race relations in Britain

Question 33

Continuing discrimination

What types of discrimination still exist in the UK?

Answer 33

• Islamophobia
• Racism towards gypsies and white east Europeans
• Antisemitism
• In 2018, the Conservative government were accused of creating a ‘hostile environment’ that led to wrongful deportation of members of the windrush generation who had lived in the UK for decades

Question 34

Cultural changes and LGBT rights

What was the potential punishment for same-sex activity between males before 1861?

Answer 34

The death penalty

Question 35

How many men were imprisoned for homosexual activity by 1954?

Answer 35

1000 men

Question 36

Decriminalisation : the 1967 Act

Outline why homosexuality was decriminalised in 1967

Answer 36

The persecution of such high profile individuals led to an outcry and a committee was established under Sir John Wolfenden to review this law. His report recommended decriminalisation of sexual activity between men aged 21 and over in private. This became law in 1967 in England and Wales

Question 37

Changing values and attitudes

Outline the changes in attitudes about homosexuality in recent decades

Answer 37

2/3 people see nothing wrong in same sex marriage now, compared with 1/5 or less in the 1980’s. More people now take the view that consenting adults should have the right to so as they wish in private and that it it no business of the court or police

Question 38

How has individualism resulted in a change in attitudes toward homosexuality?

Answer 38

Individualism is the belief that individuals should have the right to choose how they live their lives, so long as they do not harm others. It has become a central value in today’s culture and can be seen in areas of life and law regarding homosexuality

Question 39

How has equal rights resulted in a change in attitudes towards homosexuality?

Answer 39

Another major change in British culture has been the growth of the idea of equal rights. This can be seen in the case of the growth of women’s rights and equal treatment regardless of race, colour and religion, all of which have been enshrined in equality law

Question 40

How was secularisation resulted in a change of attitudes towards homosexuality?

Answer 40

Secularisation refers to the declining influence of religion on people’s lives, attitudes and values. Religions have generally opposed homosexuality. However, religion today holds much less influence than in the past - less than 1/2 of Britons believe in God. As a result, religious condemnation of homosexuality carries less weight and some churches have softened their attitudes, some even hiring gay priests

Question 41

Further legal changes

What legal changes have been made to the legal age of consent for homosexual couples?

Answer 41

In 1994, the age of consent was lowered from 21 to 18 and in 2000 it was equalised with heterosexual sex at 16

Question 42

What changes were made in the law regarding civil partnerships?

Answer 42

Civil partnerships for same-sex couples were introduced in 2005, giving legal recognition and protection to same-sex relationships. In 2019, civil partnerships also became available to heterosexual couples as an alternative to marriage

Question 43

What legal changes were made to same-sex marriage ?

Answer 43

Previously, marriage was legally defined as being between a man and a woman. This changes in England and Wales with the 2013 Marriage (Same-sex couples) Act

Question 44

Transgender rights

How have attitudes towards transsexualism changed ?

Answer 44

For many years, transsexualism was widely regarded as a medical condition, but attitudes and values have changed rapidly in recent years, with widespread acceptance that individuals should have the right to change their gender

Question 45

What did the 2004 Gender Recognition Act introduce?

Answer 45

It enables people to apply for a gender recognition certificate, which then allows them to change their legal gender, acquire a new birth certificate and have their acquired sex recognised in law for all purposes. To obtain a gender recognition certificate they must spend 2 years transitioning and they must apply to a gender recognition panel with medical evidence of a diagnosis of gender dysmorphia

Question 46

What issues are there with the 2004 Gender Recognition Act?

Answer 46

Campaigners have called for the right to legally self-declare one’s gender identity without going before a panel or supplying medical evidence. However, in 2020, the government decided to reject the idea of self-declaration and individuals must still apply to a panel and supply medical evidence

Question 47

Outline the evidence from Stonewall that shows continuing discrimination against the LGBT community

Answer 47

1/5 gay people or 2/5 trans people experience a hate crime or incident because of their sexuality or identity every year

Question 48

Key dates for LGBTQ+ rights

1967?

1988?

2000?

2003?

2004?

2010?

2013?

Answer 48

1967 - The Sexual Offences Act decriminalised homosexual acts between two men over 21 in private In England and Wales

1988 - Margrett Thatcher introduces section 28 of the Local Government Act that bans promotion of homosexuality

2000 - Age of consent for homosexual relations Is lowered to 16 for males

2003 - Section 28 is removed in England, Wales and N. Ireland and employment equality for sexual orientations established

2004 - The Civil Partnerships Act 2004 Is passed, granting civil partnerships in the UK for homosexuals

2010 - The Equality Act 2010 officially gender reassignment as a protected characteristic and hate towards homosexuals was declared a hate crime

2013 - Marriage (Same Sex Couples) is passed in England and Wales