Unit 2 - Criminological theories - 3.2 Evaluate the effectiveness of criminological theories to explain causes of crime

Question 1

Evaluating biological theories - Physiological theories - Lombroso

What is the key idea of Lombroso’s theory?

Answer 1

Criminals are physically different from non-criminals I.E. facial differences

Question 2

Clearly explain the 4 strengths of Lombroso’s theory

Answer 2

• Lombroso was the first person to study crime scientifically, using objective measurements to gather evidence. Previously, crime was seen as a moral or religious issue
• His research showed the important of examining clinical and historical records of criminals
• His later work took some limited account of social and environmental factors, not just hereditary
• By arguing that offenders were not freely choosing to commit crime, Lombroso helps us to focus on how we might prevent further offending rather than simply punishing offenders

Question 3

Clearly explain the 3 limitations to Lombroso’s theory

Answer 3

• Research, Lombroso failed to show a link between facial features and criminality
• Lombroso failed to compare his findings on prisoners with a control group of non-criminals. If he had he may have found the same characteristics among the general population; in which case, his explanation would be invalid
• By describing criminals as like ‘primitive savages’, Lombroso equates non-western societies with criminals. This is a form of racism

Question 4

Evaluating biological theories - Physiological theories - Sheldon

What is the key idea of Sheldon’s theory?

Answer 4

That body type (somatotype) is related to criminality: Mesomorphs are more likely than other types to commit crime

Question 5

Clearly explain the 2 strengths of Sheldon’s theory

Answer 5

• Other studies have replicated Sheldon’s findings. Glueck and Glueck found that 60% of the offenders in their study were mesomorphs
• The most serious delinquents in Sheldon’s sample were the ones with the most extremely mesomorphic body shapes

Question 6

Clearly explain the 5 limitations to Sheldon’s theory

Answer 6

• Glueck and Glueck found that criminality was best explained not by biology alone, but by a combination of biological, psychological and environmental factors
• Criminals may develop a mesomorphic build as a result of needing to be physically tough to succeed. If so, criminality causes somatotype, rather than somatotype causing criminality
• Social class may be the true cause both of offending and of mesomorphy. Convicted offenders are mainly working-class males, who are more likely to be in manual jobs where they acquire an athletic build
• Labelling may play a part. Mesomorphs may be labelled as troublemakers because they fit the ‘tough guy’ stereotype, resulting in a self-fulfilling prophecy. Or they may attract more police attention and get caught more than other somatotypes
• Sheldon doesn’t account for those endomorphs and ectomorphs who commit crime. Nor does he explain whether mesomorphs commit crimes other than violence

Question 7

Evaluating biological theories - Genetic theories - Twin studies

What is the key idea of genetic theories relating to twin studies?

Answer 7

Genetic theories argue that crime has genetic causes. Identical (MZ) twins are genetically identical, so if one is criminal, we should find that the other is too

Question 8

Clearly explain the 2 strengths of twin studies

Answer 8

• Because MZ twins are genetically identical, it is logical to examine whether their offending behaviour is also identical
• Twin studies give some support to genetic explanations. Ishikawa and Raine found a higher concordance rate for identical twins rather than non-identical twins

Question 9

Clearly explain the 5 limitations of twin studies

Answer 9

• If genes were the cause of criminality, identical twins (MZ) would show 100% concordance, but studies only show around 50% or less
• Higher concordance rates between identical twins may be due to sharing the same home, school etc. Their shared environment might cause similarities in their criminal behaviour, not identical genes
• Parents treat identical twins more alike than they do non-identical twins. Also, identical twins may feel closer than non-identical twins do, so one twin may be influenced by the other’s criminality to become criminal too. These environmental factors may provide similarities in behaviour
• It is impossible to isolate and measure the effect of genes separately from environmental effects
• In early studies, there was no way of knowing for certain if twins were in fact genetically identical, since DNA testing did not exist

Question 10

Evaluating biological theories - Genetic theories - Adoption studies

What is the key idea of adoption studies?

Answer 10

Comparing adopted children’s level of criminality with that of both their biological parents and adoptive parents so that we can see how far genes influence criminality

Question 11

Clearly explain 3 strengths of adoption studies

Answer 11

• Adoption studies overcome the problem faced by twin studies, where biologically identical twins are brought up in the same household, which makes it impossible to separate out the influence of genes from environment
• The research design is logical. In theory it allows us to see the relative importance of ‘nature’ ( the genes inherited from biological parents) versus ‘nurture’ (the adoptive family environment
• Findings of adoption studies give some support to genetic explanations. They show adoptees were more likely to have criminal records if their biological parents had criminal records

Question 12

Clearly explain 3 limitations of adoption studies2

Answer 12

• Gottfredson and Hirschi argue that adoption studies show genes have little effect on criminality
• Adopted children are often placed in environments similar to those of their birth family, with families of the same class and ethnicity. Similar environments may produce similar behaviour
• Many children are not adopted immediately after birth but remain with their biological family for some time. This early environment may be the true cause of their criminality

Question 13

Evaluating biological theories - Genetic theories - XYY syndrome

What is the key idea of Jacob’s XYY syndrome theory?

Answer 13

Males who have an extra Y chromosome are often violent criminals

Question 14

Clearly explain 2 strengths of Jacob’s XXY theory

Answer 14

• Jacob et al found an association between XXY syndrome and offenders imprisoned for violent behaviour
• Price and Whatmore found some links between the syndrome and property crime

Question 15

Clearly explain the 4 limitations of Jacob’s XXY theory

Answer 15

• Even if some violent offenders have the syndrome, this doesn’t prove it is the cause of their violence
• XXY males are tall and well built, so they fit the stereotype of ‘violent offenders’ and get labelled as such by the courts, so they are more likely to get a prison sentence. As a result, XXY males are over-represented in samples drawn from prisoners and this overstates the importance of the syndrome as a possible cause of crime
• Alternatively, XXY males may be over-represented in prison because they often have a low intelligence, meaning they are more likely to be caught. Samples drawn from prisoners are therefore skewed
• The syndrome is very rare (1 in 1000 men) so it cannot explain much crime

Question 16

Evaluating biological theories - Brain injuries and disorders

What is the key idea of Brain injury and disorder theories?

Answer 16

Injuries, disorders and diseases of the brain may cause it to malfunction in ways that change personality, morals or self-control, leading to criminal behaviour

Question 17

Clearly explain the 3 strengths of brain injuries and disorder theories

Answer 17

• In a few extreme cases, brain injury or disease has led to major changes in an individual’s personality and behaviour, including criminality
• There is some correlation between abnormal EEG readings (brainwave activity) and psychopathic criminality
• Prisoners are more likely than non-prisoners to have a brain injury

Question 18

Clearly explain the 3 limitations of brain injuries and disorders theories

Answer 18

• Crimes caused by brain injury or disease are rare. The sufferer’s original personality is more important in whether they engage in crime
• It is not clear that abnormal brainwave activity causes psychopathic criminality. Some psychopaths have normal EEG patterns and some normal people have abnormal EEG patterns
• Prisoners’ higher likelihood of brain injury could be a result of their criminality (eg getting into fights), rather than the cause of it

Question 19

Evaluating biological theories - Biochemical explanations

What Is the key idea of biochemical explanations?

Answer 19

Biochemical factors may trigger criminal behaviour by affecting brain chemistry and mental processes

Question 20

Clearly explain 4 strengths of biochemical explanations theories

Answer 20

• Sexual hormones, blood sugar levels and substance abuse can affect mood, judgement and aggression
• Testosterone levels and male offending both peak around the same age (16 to 23) , suggesting hormones affect criminal behaviour
• Alcohol produces disinhibition, reducing self-control and leading to criminal behaviour, particularly violence. Crack cocaine has been strongly linked to violent crime
• Biochemical factors are recognised by the courts. The law of infanticide states that if a mother kills her baby as a result of post-natal depression or breastfeeding, she has a partial defence to murder. Pre-menstrual tension has been accepted as a defence in shoplifting cases

Question 21

Clearly explain 4 limitations of biochemical explanations

Answer 21

• Biochemical processes may prompt some individuals to offend, but it may require an environmental trigger to cause actual offending
• Scarmella and Brown found testosterone levels do not greatly affect aggression levels in most men
• Infanticide may be due to isolation and the responsibility for caring for a newborn child rather than hormones

Question 22

Briefly explain the GENERAL criticisms of biological theories

Answer 22

Environmental factors - Biological theories ignore environmental factors. A person’s biology may give them potentially criminal characteristics (aggressiveness) but they may need an environmental trigger to engage in a criminal act

Sample bias - Researchers often use studies of convicted criminals, but these may not be representative of the criminals who got away, so they are not a sound basis for generalising about all criminals

Gender bias - Most biological research focuses on males, so it doesn’t explain female criminality

Crime is a social construct - What counts as a crime varies between cultures and over time, so it makes no sense to look for universal explanations, as biological theories do

Question 23

Evaluating individualistic theories - psychodynamic theories - Freud

What was the key idea of Freud’s psychoanalytic theory?

Answer 23

Criminal behaviour is the result of faulty early socialisation preventing the individual resolving unconscious conflicts between the id and superego

Question 24

Clearly explain the 2 strengths of Freud’s psychoanalytic theory

Answer 24

• The theory points to the importance of early socialisation and family relationships in understanding criminal behaviour
• Psychoanalytic explanations have had some influence on policies for dealing with crime and deviance

Question 25

Clearly explain the 2 limitations of Freud’s psychoanalytic theory

Answer 25

• Critics doubt the existence of an ‘unconscious mind’ - how could we know about it, if its unconscious
• Psychoanalytic explanations are unscientific and subjective - they rely on accepting the psychoanalyst’s claims that they can see into the workings of the individual’s unconscious mind to discover their inner conflicts and motivations

Question 26

Evaluating individualistic theories - psychodynamic theories - Bowlby

What is the key idea of Bowlby’s maternal deprivation theory?

Answer 26

Bowlby sees maternal deprivation as a cause of criminality and stresses the importance of the parent-child bond

Question 27

Clearly explain the 2 strengths of Bowlby’s maternal deprivation theory

Answer 27

• Bowlby’s research showed that more of his sample of 44 juvenile delinquents had suffered maternal deprivation (39%) than a control group of non-delinquents (5%)
• His work shows the need to consider the role of parent-child relationships in explaining criminality

Question 28

Clearly explain the 5 limitations of Bowlby’s maternal deprivation theory

Answer 28

• It was a retrospective study, where delinquents and their mothers had to accurately recall past events. This can be a problem, especially if it involves recalling emotive experiences
• Bowlby accounts for the delinquents of 39% of the children in terms of maternal deprivation but doesn’t explain why the other 61% were delinquent. Deprivation cannot be the only cause
• Bowlby’s own later study of 60 children who had been separated from their parents for long periods before they were 5, found no evidence of ‘affectionless psychopathy’
• Bowlby overestimates how far early childhood experiences have a permanent effect on later behaviour (also a criticism of Freud)
• Sammons and Putwain note that the idea of a link between maternal deprivation and criminality is no longer widely accepted

Question 29

Evaluating individualistic theories - Eysenck’s personality theory

What is the key idea of Eysenck’s personality theory?

Answer 29

Eysenck sees criminality as the result of an extroverted and neurotic personality. Extraverts seeks stimulation, leading to rule breaking, while neurotics’ anxiety prevents them learning from punishment. Psychotic personalities are also more likely to offend

Question 30

Clearly explain 2 strengths of Eysenck’s personality theory

Answer 30

• The theory is useful in describing how some measurable tendencies could increase a persons risk of offending
• Eysenck predicts that High E, N and P scores lead to criminality and some studies support his predictions: offenders tend to be extraverted, neurotic and psychotic

Question 31

Clearly explain 5 limitations of Eysenck’s personality theory

Answer 31

• Farrington examined a range of studies. These show prisoners are neurotic and psychotic, but not extraverted
• The E scale may be measuring two separate things: impulsiveness and sociability. Offenders score highly on impulsiveness but not sociability
• Evidence on prisoners shows a correlation between personality type and criminality, but this doesn’t prove that personality type causes criminality. It may be the other way round: being in prison might cause people to become neurotic
• Convicted offenders (on whom the theory is based) may not be typical of offenders as a whole. For example, less impulsive (low N) offenders may be more likely to avoid getting caught
• Eysenck used self-report questionnaires, which may not produce valid results: people may lie when asked about themselves

Question 32

Evaluating individualistic theories - Learning theories - Differential association

What is the key idea of differential association?

Answer 32

Sutherland argues that we learn criminal behaviour through socialisation in social groups where the attitudes and values we are exposed to In these groups favour law-breaking

Question 33

Clearly explain the 3 strengths of differential association

Answer 33

• The fact that crime often runs in families supports the theory. People with criminal parents are more likely to become criminals themselves, perhaps because they have learned criminal values and techniques in the family
• Matthews found that juvenile delinquents are more likely to have friends who commit anti-social acts , suggesting that they learn their behaviour from peer groups
• The attitudes of work groups can normalise white collar crime, enabling offenders to justify their behaviour

Question 34

Clearly explain the 1 limitation of the differential association theory

Answer 34

• Not everyone who is exposed to ‘criminal influences’ becomes criminal. They might learn from family or peers how to commit crime, but never put this into practice

Question 35

Evaluating individualistic theories - Learning theories - Operant learning

What is the key idea of the operant learning theory?

Answer 35

If a particular behaviour is rewarded (reinforced) it is likely to be repeated. However, if it results in an undesirable outcome (punishment), it is unlikely to be repeated

Question 36

Clearly explain the 2 strengths of operant learning theory

Answer 36

• Skinner’s studies of learning in animals show that they learn from experience through reinforcement. Some human learning is also of this kind
• This can be applied to offending. Jeffery states that if crime leads to more rewarding than punishing outcomes for an individuals, they will be more likely to offend

Question 37

Clearly explain the 3 limitations of the operant learning theory

Answer 37

• Operant learning theory Is based on studies of learning in animals. This Is not an adequate model of how humans learn criminal behaviour
• The theory ignores internal mental processes such as thinking, personal values and attitudes. It explains criminal behaviour solely in terms of external rewards and punishments
• Humans have free will and can choose their course of action. For example, we can choose to do something that causes us suffering in order to help someone else

Question 38

Evaluating individualistic theories - Learning theories - Social learning theory

What is the key idea of social learning theory?

Answer 38

Bandura argues that we learn behaviour through observation and imitation of others. If we see a model being rewarded for acting in a deviant way, we don’t need to experience the reward ourselves in order to copy it

Question 39

Clearly explain the 2 strengths of the social learning theory

Answer 39

• Unlike Skinner, Bandura takes account of the fact that we are social beings. We learn from the experiences of others, not just from our own direct experience
• Bandura shows that children who observed aggressive behaviours being rewarded, imitated that behaviour . This shows the importance of role models in learning deviant behaviour

Question 40

Clearly explain the 3 limitations of the social learning theory

Answer 40

• The theory is based on laboratory studies. Laboratories are artificial settings and findings may not be valid for real-life situations
• The theory assumes people’s behaviour is completely determined by their learning experiences and ignores their freedom of choice. This also conflicts with legal views of crime, which assume that we have free will to commit crime
• Not all observed behaviour is easily imitated. We might see a film in which a safecracker is rewarded with the ‘loot’, but we lack the skills to imitate the behaviour

Question 41

Evaluating individualistic theories - Cognitive theories - Criminal personality theory

What is the key idea of Yochelson’s and Samenow’s theory?

Answer 41

They see criminality as the result of errors and biases in criminal’s thinking patterns

Question 42

Clearly explain the 2 strengths of the criminal personality theory

Answer 42

• The idea that criminals’ thinking patterns are different from normal has led to other research. For example, the Psychological inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles is a questionnaire aimed at revealing whether someone shows criminal thought patterns
• Successful treatments, known as cognitive behavioural therapy, have been developed based on the idea that criminals’ thought processes can be corrected with treatment

Question 43

Clearly explain the 3 limitations of the criminal personality theory

Answer 43

• Yochelson and Samenow did not use a control group of non-criminals to see if ‘normal’ people also make the same thinking errors
• Their sample was unrepresentative: there was no women and most men had been found insane and sent to psychiatric hospital. Yet Yochelson and Samenow claim that all offenders share the shame thinking errors as this sample
• There was a high sample attrition (drop-out rate). By the end there was only 30 left in the study

Question 44

Evaluating individualistic theories - Cognitive theories - Moral development theory

What is the key idea of the moral development theory?

Answer 44

The theory argues that criminals are stuck at an immature stage of moral development unable to make correct moral choices, which leads to criminal behaviour

Question 45

Clearly explain the 2 strengths of the moral development theory

Answer 45

• Some studies show delinquents are more likely to have immature moral development, as the theory predicts
• Thornton and Reid found the theory to be truer for crimes such as theft and robbery (which involve reasoning) than crimes of violence (which are often impulsive)

Question 46

Clearly explain the limitations of the moral development theory

Answer 46

• Kohlberg focuses on moral thinking rather than moral behaviour. Someone may be perfectly capable of thinking morally while acting immorally

Question 47

What are the GENERAL criticisms of individualistic theories?

Answer 47

Artificiality - Researchers often use laboratory experiments, but how someone behaves in a laboratory may not reflect how the would act in reality

Sample bias - Researchers often use studies of convicted criminals, but these may not be representative of the criminals who got away, so they are not a sound basis for generalising about all criminals

Neglect of social factors - They take little account of the social factors that may causes criminal behaviour, such as poverty and discrimination

Question 48

Evaluating sociological theories - Functionalist and subcultural theories - Durkheim

What is the key idea of Durkheim’s theory?

Answer 48

Society is bound together by shared norms and values, but some rule-breaking is inevitable because not all individuals are adequately socialised

Question 49

Clearly explain the strength of Durkheim’s theory

Answer 49

• Durkheim was the first to recognise that crime can have positive functions for society E.G reinforcing boundaries between right and wrong by uniting people against the wrongdoers

Question 50

Clearly explain the 2 limitations of Durkheim’s theory

Answer 50

• Durkheim claims society requires a certain amount of deviance to function but offers no way of knowing how much is the right amount
• While crime might be functional for some, it is not functional for victims

Question 51

Evaluating sociological theories - Functionalist and subcultural theories - Merton

What is the key idea of Merton’s strain theory?

Answer 51

Blocked opportunities to achieve society’s goals by legitimate means causes individuals to use criminal means

Question 52

Clearly explain the 2 strengths of Merton’s theory

Answer 52

• Merton shows how both normal and deviant behaviour arise from the same goals. Conformists and innovators both pursue ‘money success’, but by different means
• He explains the patterns shown in official statistics: most crime is property crime, because society values wealth so highly; working class crime rates are higher, because they have less opportunity to obtain wealth legitimately

Question 53

Clearly explain the 3 limitations of Merton’s theory

Answer 53

• Merton ignores crime of the wealthy and over-predicts the amount of working-class crime
• He sees deviance solely as an individual response, ignoring the group deviance of delinquent subcultures
• Merton focuses on utilitarian crime eg theft, ignoring crimes with no economic motive eg vandalism

Question 54

Evaluating sociological theories - Subcultural theories

What is the key idea of Subcultural theories?

Answer 54

Individuals whose legitimate opportunities are blocked may turn to deviant subcultures as an alternative means of achieving status

Question 55

Clearly explain 2 strengths of Subcultural theories

Answer 55

• These theories show how subcultures perform a function for their members by offering solutions to the problem of failing to achieve mainstream goals legitimately
• Cloward and Ohlin show how different types of neighbourhood give rise to different illegitimate opportunities and different subcultures (criminal, conflict and retreats

Question 56

Clearly explain the 3 limitations of Subcultural theories

Answer 56

• Like Merton, they ignore crimes of the wealthy and over-predict the amount of working-class crime
• They assume everyone starts with mainstream goals and turns to a subculture when they fail to achieve them. But some people don’t share these goals in the first place; they may be attracted to crime for other reasons
• Actual subcultures are not as clear-cut as Cloward and Ohlin claim. Some subcultures show characteristics of all 3 types: criminal, conflict and retreatist

Question 57

Evaluating sociological theories - Interactionism and labelling theory

What is the key idea of the interactionism and labelling theory?

Answer 57

An act only becomes criminal when labelled as such. To understand crime, we must focus on how certain acts and people get labelled as criminal

Question 58

Clearly explain the 3 strengths of the labelling theory

Answer 58

• Labelling theory shows that the law is not a fixed set of rules to be taken for granted, but something whose construction we need to explain
• It shifts the focus onto how the police create crime by applying labels based on their stereotypes (typifications) of the ‘typical criminal’. This selective enforcement may explain why the working class and minority groups are over-represented in the crime statistics
• It shows how attempts to control deviance can trigger a deviance amplification spiral and create more deviance

Question 59

Clearly explain 5 limitations of the labelling theory

Answer 59

• It wrong implies that once someone is labelled, a deviant career is inevitable (‘determinism’)
• Its emphasis on the negative effects of labelling gives offenders a ‘victim’ status, ignoring the real victims
• It doesn’t apply where the power label comes from. It focuses on officials such as the police who apply the labels, rather than on the capitalist society who makes the rules
• It fails to explain why people commit primary deviance in the first place, before they are labelled
• It fails to explain why the labels are applied to certain groups (eg the working class) but not to others

Question 60

Evaluating sociological theories - The Marxist view of crime and law

What is the key idea of the Marxist view of crime and law?

Answer 60

Capitalism is the root causes of all crime. All classes commit crime but selective enforcement means crimes appears only to be a working-class problem

Question 61

Clearly explain the 2 strengths of the Marxist theory

Answer 61

• It shows how poverty and inequality can cause working-class crime, and how capitalism promoted greed and encourages upper-class crime
• It shows how both law-making and law enforcement are biased against the working-class and in favour of the powerful. For example, corporate crime is rarely prosecuted

Question 62

Clearly explain 3 limitations of the Marxist theory

Answer 62

• It focuses on class and largely ignores the relationship between crime and other inequalities such as gender and ethnicity
• It over-predicts the amount of working-class crime: not all poor people turn to crime
• Not all capitalist societies have high crime rates eg Japan’s homicide rate is only about 1/5 of the USA’s
  (However, Marxists point out that capitalist societies with little welfare provision, like the USA, have higher crime rates)

Question 63

Evaluating sociological theories - Right realism

What is the key idea of Right realism?

Answer 63

Based on the Rational Choice Theory: criminals are rational actors who weigh up the risks and rewards before deciding whether to commit crimes

Question 64

Clearly explain the 4 strengths of Right realism

Answer 64

• Several studies support RCT. Rettig gave students a scenario of an opportunity to commit a crime. He found that the degree of punishment determined whether they chose to commit the crime
• Feldman found that people made rational decisions: if the rewards were high and the risks low, they said the crime was worth committing
• Bennett and Wright interviewed convicted burglars. The burglars considered the potential reward, difficulty of breaking in and risk of being caught. Risk was the most important factor influencing their decision to commit crime
• Right realism may explain some opportunistic petty crimes such as theft

Question 65

Clearly explain the 3 limitations of Right realism

Answer 65

• Rettig and Feldman’s studies were experiments; the results may not apply to real offenders
• Bennett and Wright studied unsuccessful burglars. We don’t know if successful burglars also think this way
• Not all crimes are the result of rational decisions. Violent crimes are often impulsive. Offenders under the influence of drugs or alcohol may be unlikely to calculate the risks and rewards before offending

Question 66

Evaluating sociological theories - Left realism

What is the key idea of Left realism?

Answer 66

Left realists see crime as a real problem. Its main victims are disadvantaged groups. Inequality is the main cause of crime; it encourages relative deprivation

Question 67

Clearly explain the 2 strengths of Left realism

Answer 67

• Left realism draws attention to the importance of poverty, inequality and relative deprivation as the underlying structural causes of crime
• It draws attention to the reality of street crime and its effects, especially on victims from deprived groups

Question 68

Clearly explain the 3 limitations of Left realism

Answer 68

• Henry and Milovanovic argue that left realism accepts the authorities’ definition of crime as just being the street crimes of the poor. It fails to explain white collar and corporate crime and ignores the harm done to the poor by the crimes of the powerful
• It over-predicts the amount of working-class crime: not everyone who experiences marginalisation and relative deprivation turns to crime
• Its focus on high-crime inner-city areas gives an unrepresentative view and makes crime appear a greater problem than it is

Question 69

Evaluating sociological theories - Surveillance theories

What is the key idea of Surveillance theories?

Answer 69

Foucault argues that in today’s society, people engage in self-surveillance. We are also under electronic surveillance. Surveillance has been an increasingly important form of crime control

Question 70

Clearly explain the 2 strengths of Surveillance theories

Answer 70

• Foucault’s work has stimulated research into surveillance and disciplinary power - especially into the idea of an ‘electronic Panopticon’ that uses modern technologies to monitor us
• Researchers have identified other forms of surveillance, including actuarial justice and profiling

Question 71

Clearly explain the 2 limitations of Surveillance theories

Answer 71

• Foucault exaggerates the extent of control. For example, Goffman shows how some inmates of prisons and mental hospitals resist control
• Surveillance may not change people’s behaviour as Foucault claims. For example, Studies have shown that CCTV may fail to prevent crime because offenders often take no notice of it

Question 72

Clearly explain the 3 general criticisms of Sociological theories

Answer 72

The underlying cause - Sociologists disagree about the cause of crime eg functionalism and Marxism see structural factors as the cause, whereas labelling theory sees it as the outcome of interactions between police and suspects

Over-prediction - Sociological theories don’t explain why not every individual who is deprived or suffering blocked opportunities commits crime

Biological and Psychological factors - Sociological theories neglect factors that may explain why one individual commits crime while another person in exactly the same social position does not