Unit 2 - Criminological theories - 4.1 Assess the use of criminological theories in informing policy development Flashcards
Biological theories influencing policies
What do biological theories believe causes criminality?
Criminality is caused by physical abnormalities within the individual
What kinds of policies would biological theories lead to?
They aim to change the working of the criminal’s brain or body and cure the condition that causes their criminality
Give three examples of biochemical processes and factors that have been linked to criminality
- Effects of the male sex hormone, testosterone
- Substance abuse
- Defincies in diet
Drug treatment
How do drug treatments control criminal or anti-social behaviour?
Affecting the body’s biochemical processes to stop criminal or anti-social behaviour
Briefly explain how alcohol treatments can be used through drugs
Alcohol abuse can trigger violent behaviour. Antabuse is used to treat alcoholism. It works by stopping the body from breaking down alcohol, causing hangover symptoms if the user drinks even a small amount. This is in the hopes of preventing them from drinking alcohol and in turn reducing violent crime
Briefly explain how heroin addictions can be treated through drugs
Heroin addictions often lead to addicts committing crimes to pay for drugs. Methadone is used to treat addicts. It acts as a long-term alternative to heroin or to prevent withdrawal symptoms. Methadone helps to reduce crime as it stops addicts needing to steal to pay for drugs
Briefly explain how sex offenders can be treated through drugs
Stilbestrol is a form of ‘chemical castration’ that has been used in prisoners to treat male sex offenders. It is a female hormone that suppresses testosterone as a way of reducing men’s sex drive. It has serious side effects including breast development and feminisation
Briefly explain how drug treatments can be used for managing prisoners
Sedatives and tranquillisers such as valium, librium that are used to keep potentially violent or hyperactive prisoners calm
What is Vivitrol?
A drug injected into patients to block the effects of Opioids so that they feel no need to continue using Opioids like heroin or morphine
When is the drug administered and how often?
After the patient is sober from drugs for 7 days and every 4 weeks
How many addicts come back to prison after getting their first free shot of Vivitrol?
30%
Crime control policies : Diet
Briefly explain three ways in which diet can be used to try and change anti-social behaviour
- Gesch et al found that adding vitamins, minerals and fatty acids caused a large reduction in anti-social behaviour (37% reduction in case of violent incidents)
- Vitamin B3 used to treat forms of schizophrenia, often associated with violent behaviour
- Dietary changes have been used to try and control hyperactivity. For example, removing foodstuffs containing the artificial colouring Tartrazine from children’s diets
Crime control policies : Surgery
Briefly explain two ways in which surgery can be used to prevent offending
Surgical castration - of sex offenders have been used in the past to change offending behaviour. For example, in Denmark and US.
Lobotomy - Procedure that involves cutting the connection between the frontal lobes in the brain and the thalamus. Used to treat sexually motivated and violent criminals. Can have very serious side effects so rarely used
Give an example to illustrate how chemical substances can be used to control crowds
Tear gas may be used to control crowds or disperse rioters. It works by causing uncomfortable or distressing sensations, including vomiting, breathing difficulties and disorientation
Genetic theories - Eugenics
What do genetic theories argue about criminality?
Criminality is transmitted by inheriting a ‘criminal’ gene
Briefly describe the beliefs of the eugenicists
They believe that the human race is in danger of ‘degenerating’ because the poor were breeding at a faster rate compared to the higher classes. As a result, they were passing on the supposedly inferior genes (poverty) more quickly than the higher class were passing on their ‘superior’ genes thus lowering the average intelligence and the moral quality of the population
Compulsory sterilisation
Why did Eugenicists argue that some people should be sterilised?
They argued that the ‘genetically unfit’ should be sterilised to stop them passing on their genes
Describe an example of US policy based on the Eugenics
In 1927 the US Supreme Court ruled that it was legal to compulsory sterilise the ‘unfit’ including those with learning difficulties for ‘the protection and health of the state’. Other eugenic policies include forcing abortions and denying rights to marry
The Nazis’ ‘racial purity’ policy
Why did the Nazis favour eugenic policies?
They believed in purifying the ‘Aryan master race’ by eliminating those who they deemed unfit to breed including physically and mentally disabled people. 400,000 were sterilised against their will and 70,000 were killed under the Nazis’ euthanasia policy
How did the Nazis’ justify the genocide they carried out?
Eugenic policies - killing the ‘inferior race’ so that only the ‘Aryan master race’ remained
Which groups were victim of the holocaust?
Jews (6 million killed), Gypies (1.5 million), lesbians and gays, disabled people and any other people who the Nazis’ believed were deviant
Individualistic theories influencing policies - Psychoanalysis
Briefly explain how psychoanalysis links to Freud’s theory of personality
Psychoanalysis is based on Freud’s theory of personality. This highlights the unconscious conflicts between the id and superego. Psychoanalysis sees a weak superego as a cause of criminality since the person lacks a moral force to curb their selfish instincts. A weak superego can result from inadequate socialisation as a child.
Crime control
What does psychoanalysis involve?
It involves bringing these unconscious conflicts and repressed emotions into the conscious mind so they can be revolved
Why did August Aichhorn use psychoanalysis to treat young offenders? How does this link to Bowlby’s maternal deprivation theory?
The young offenders had uncaring or absent parents so they had failed to develop loving relationships. Normal socialisation had not taken place so the offenders had not developed a superego. Similar to Bowlby’s idea that maternal deprivation causes criminality.
What did Aichhorn’s methods involve?
Hypnosis and lengthy conversations
According to Freud, why did some of his patient’s thoughts have to be pushed away?
The thought was unacceptable to the conscious mind
Give an example of a thought that had to be pushed away
The wish to kill somebody
What is psychoanalysis investigating?
The mind and how you feel and what you think about your feelings
How do psychoanalysis differ from psychiatry?
Psychiatry often involves drugs or medications whereas psychoanalysis involves talking to solve problems
Is psychoanalysis effective ? Provide some evidence from Eysenck’s findings.
NO!
- Eysenck thought criminals were neurotic so psychoanalysis was unlikely to work for them
- Eysenck found that only 44% of neurosis patients showed improvement VS 72% treated by hospitals and GPs
Briefly outline the two problems with psychoanalysis
Cost - It is very costly and time consuming as a result never been used on a large scale for treating criminals
Abuse - The analysis determines what is ‘normal’ or not. EG Freud thought that homosexuality was abnormal. This can give rise to abuse
Operant learning and token economics
According to the Operant Learning theory, how is criminal behaviour learned?
Reinforcements (rewards) and punishments
What is a ‘token economy’?
A behaviour modification programme used in some prisons
Crime control
Briefly explain how a ‘token economy’ works
- The institution draws up a list of desirable behaviours eg obeying the rules
- When the offender behaves in the desired way, they earn a token
- Tokens may be exchanged for rewards eg sweets, phone call
- Through this selective reinforcement, good behaviour becomes more likely and undesirable behaviour becomes less likely
Is the token economy effective?
To some extent as it: makes prisoners more manageable, some studies show an improvement in behaviour. However, good behaviour tends to stop once the offender leaves the prison, although offenders tend to return to crime more slowly
Give an example of where this system was used too severely
In the US, food and drink were withheld and given as rewards. However, there was heavy opposition to this as many believe it should be a human right to have food and water, not a privilege.
Aversion therapy and Eysenck’s theory
What is Aversion therapy used for?
Treating sex offenders
According to Eysenck, why are criminals harder to condition?
Because they tend to be strongly extravert and neurotic which means they are more resistant to learning through punishments
How does aversion therapy work?
Offenders are asked to think about about an unacceptable sexual fantasy until they are aroused. A strongly adverse stimulus is then administered, such as an electric shock or nausea-inducing drug. The procedure is repeated until the offender comes to associate the deviant arousal and the stimulus. The aim is to stop the thoughts and thus the offending behaviour
Is aversion therapy effective?
Very limited success, usually only short term. Uses in ‘curing’ gay people has been criticised as human rights abuse
Cognitive theories and CBT
According to cognitive theories, what causes offending
Our thought processes
What does Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) aim to do?
Change offender’s thoughts and attitudes so as to change their behaviour
CBT - Think first programme
What is the Think first programme?
A programme who have one to one and group sessions for repeat offenders on probation
What does the Think first programme aim to do?
It aims to enable offenders to control their thoughts and behaviour.
What does the Think first programme teach?
Problem solving skills, consequential thinking, decision making and seeing things from other’s point of view
Is the Think first programme effective?
Those who completed the course are 30% less likely to be re-convicted than those who received an alternative community sentence. However, not everyone may complete the course
CBT - Agression Replacement Training
Who is the ART programme for?
Violent and aggressive offenders
What does the ART programme involve?
- Interpersonal skills training
- Moral reasoning training that challenges individuals attitudes by giving them moral dilemmas
- Anger control techniques , dealing with emotions and providing offenders with alternative actions instead of violence
Is the ART programme effective?
Lower re-conviction rates. However, some evaluations found that although skills improved, behaviour did not
‘What works’
Are all CBT programmes equally successful or equally suitable
NO!
What does the Home office ‘what works’ policy aim to ensure?
That CBT programmes actually reduce offending and so It only accredits programmes that meet their certain criteria
What does the ‘what works’ policy criteria include?
- A clear plan and proven methods for altering offenders’ behaviour
- Careful matching of offenders to the right programme
- Targeting the risk factors that lead to offending
If a programme meets this criteria they can be accredited
Sociological theories influencing theories - Merton and subcultural theories
According to Merton, why do poor people commit crime?
Legitimate opportunities are blocked for poor people so they turn to illegal means of making money
According to subcultural theories, what causes crime?
Blocked opportunities. Different subcultures cope with these blocked opportunities by becoming professional criminals, joining gangs or dropping out
According to sociological theories, how could society’s structure be made more equal?
- Policies to tackle poverty, better welfare benefits, wages and job security would reduce crime by giving everyone a more equal chance of achieving success by legal means
- Equal opportunities in school would reduce failure rates for working-class students making them less likely to have status frustration and join delinquent subcultures
- Education in prison, half of UK prisoners reading level of 11 year old. Better education in prisons would help inmates gain skills to get a good job and good straight
Research improving benefit
How much money does Finland give its citizens monthly?
$660
Who receives these benefits?
Only un-employed people
What are the problems with these benefits?
Someone has to pay for them
Labelling theory
What does the Labelling theory argue is the cause of crime?
Result of self-fulfilling prophecy
What does labelling someone as a criminal do?
It risks them living up to their label and committing further, more serious crimes
Briefly describe the several crime control policies influenced by Labelling theory
Decriminalisation - decriminalising minor offences such as possession of cannabis would mean fewer young people are labelled as criminal. A criminal record can prevent them from getting a job and lead to secondary deviance (further offending)
Diversion policies - aims to keep an offender out of the justice system so as to avoid labelling them as criminals. Some diversion policies are informal like when police use their discretion not to charge someone. Others are formal, such as requiring an officer to attend a anger management programme to avoid prosecution
Reintegrative shaming - Braithwaite identifies two types of ‘shaming’ of labelling :
- Disintegrative shaming, where both the crime and the criminal are labelled as bad and the offender is excluded from society. This can push them into further crime
- Reintegrative shaming, labels the act not the actor, as if to say,’ he has done a bad thing’, rather than ‘he is a bad person’. It avoids stigmatising the offender as evil, while still encouraging them to repent and encouraging others to admit them back into society
How effective are the labelling theory policies?
Evidence shows crime control policies based on labelling theory can deal successfully with minor offences and young offenders. By avoiding labelling people as criminals and keeping them out of the justice system, they avoid pushing people into a deviant career
Right realism - Situational crime prevention (SCP)
How do SCP policies aim to reduce crime?
By reducing the opportunities for crime by increasing the risks or difficulties of committing the crime and reducing the rewards
What theory is Situational crime prevention based on?
The rational choice theory
Give three examples of ‘target hardening’ measures?
Locking cars, employing security guards and re-shaping the environment to ‘design crime out’ of an area
Is SCP effective?
Not really! It mainly causes displacement, if criminals are rational actors, when they find a target too hard to crack, they will simply look for a softer one. This could result in more vunerable targets being victimised more because other targets have been hardened
Right realism - Environmental crime prevention
According to Wilson and Kelling’s ‘broken windows theory’, what is the cause of crime?
A disorderly neighbourhood sends out the message that nobody cares. This attracts offenders, who calculate that their activities will not be punished
Briefly describe the two elements of Wilson and Kelling’s proposed policy
- An environmental improvement strategy, all signs of disorder must be tackled promptly
- A Zero tolerance policing strategy (ZTP) - zero-tolerance approach toward all crime, even minor crimes
Briefly outline four reasons why ZTP may not be effective
- Crime fell after ZTP was introduced in New York in the 1990’s, but could have been due to other factors. In other us cities crime fell even when ZTP hadn’t been adopted
- ZTP can lead to targeting of ethnic minorities due to police racism
- Males and Macallair found that ZTP curfews can increase juvenile crime: by removing law-abiding youths off the streets, they leave the streets emptier and favourable to crime
- ZTP and SCP fail to tackle structural causes of crime such as inequality. They focus on low level street crime, ignoring crimes of the powerful - White collar and state crimes
Right realism - Penal population and imprisonment
According to right realists, why would tougher penalties deter criminals?
More risks over reward would deter criminals as right realists believe criminals use rational choice before committing crime
Briefly outline two functions of prison according to right realists
Incapacitation - Criminals become incapable of harming the public, jail takes them ‘out of circulation’
Deterrence - Criminals think twice before offending when they see tough punishments handed out
What is meant by ‘penal populism’?
Politicians believed tough penalties were popular with the public so used harsher penalties for crime
Briefly outline the three changes to sentencing introduced by the Conservative government in the 1997 Crime Act
- Automatic life sentences for a second serious sexual or violent offence
- A minimum of 7 years for a third Class A drug trafficking conviction
- Minimum of 3 years for a third domestic burglary conviction
What policies did Tony Blair’s government introduce in 1997?
ASBO’s and Curfews
What has been the impact of penal populism?
35,000 more prisoners from 1993 to 2021
What do the statistics from 2018 show about the problems of penal populism?
Increase in suicides, homicides, self harm incidents and assaults
Is prison effective?
Briefly evaluate how effective prison is in relation to the following; Incapacitation, rehabilitation, recidivism and deterrence
Incapacitation - Offenders cannot commit crimes against the public while they are in jail however they can commit crimes on fellow inmates and staff
Rehabilitation - One function of prison is to rehabilitate offenders but overcrowding and budget cuts means many prisoners lack access to education, skills training and treatment which would help them become law-abiding citizens
Recidivism - Ineffective in preventing reoffending. 48% of adults are re-convicted within a year of their release
Deterrence - Right realists argue that the risk of jail deters would-be criminals who make rational choices about offending. However, studies show that risk of imprisonment doesn’t deter offenders enough to affect crime rates
Left realists
According to left realists, what is the root cause of crime?
The unequal and unfair structure of society
Why do left realists suggest that policies to reduce inequality will reduce crime?
Left realists believe that relative deprivation causes crime and if they can resolve the unequal structure of society and the subsequent relative deprivation crime will be reduced
Why do left realists suggest that the police are losing public support?
They are widely distrusted and as a result their information dries up and so they have to rely on ‘military policing’ such as stop and search which creates further loss of co-operation, meaning they cannot tackle crime effectively
How can the police win back public support?
They must involve local communities in deciding their priorities. They must focus on crimes that victimise the disadvantaged such as domestic abuse and hate crimes rather than offences such as possession of soft drugs
Briefly outline three successes there have been for left realist policing policies
- Many forces now make cannabis possession a low priority crime
- Domestic violence and hate crimes are now a high priority
- Neighbourhood policing and police community support officers (PCSO’s) have been introduced to build better relationships with communities
What Is meant by a ‘multi-agency approach’?
Left realists argue that crime control must involve many other agencies from the police : schools, youth services, housing departments, social services and the NHS
Give an example of a multi-agency approach by a campaign?
No Knives Better Lives. This campaign involves a wide range of agencies, including schools, local councils, youth services and the police
Briefly describe one policy advocated by left realists that the new Labour governments introduced
‘Tough on crime, tough on the causes of crime’. For example, Labour invested in the improvement to deprived neighbourhoods - an example of being tough on the causes of crime
Surveillance theories
Briefly explain how CCTV can be seen as a modern form of the Panopticon
Its a surveillance system in which prison guards can observe inmates without the prisoners knowing whether they were being watched
According to Gill and Loveday, why is CCTV ineffective?
Very few criminals are put off by CCTV
Give an example of when CCTV has been effective?
Identification of David Copeland, terrorist convicted of a nail-bombing campaign
According to critics, what is CCTV’s real function?
To reassure the public, even though it makes little difference to their security
What evidence is there that CCTV may enable stereotyping to occur?
Norris and Armstrong found that CCTV operators using racial stereotypes, singling out black youths for surveillance
What is meant by ‘surveillance creep’?
Where technology introduced for one purpose gets extended to another. Automatic Number Plate Recognition was introduced in response to an IRA bombing campaign in 1990-1993. They failed to identify a single bomber so instead they used the cameras to identify untaxed vehicles
Profilling
What does profiling involve?
Using data to draw up a statistical picture of likely offenders, often using official crime statistics to do so. Individuals can be profiled according to special characteristics to decide what degree of risk they pose
Briefly explain how profiling Is used by airport security
Airport security screening checks are based on offenders ‘risk factors’ . Using information gathered about passengers (sex, age), they can be given a risk score and anyone scoring above a certain level can be stopped, questioned and searched etc
Briefly explain why profiling can be discriminatory
A profile based on official crime statistics may show certain groups as more likely to offend eg black youths
Briefly outline how profiling can create a self-fulfilling prophecy
The police act on the profile by stopping black youths more than any other groups. Any black youths who are actually offending are more likely to be caught than offenders from other groups. Black youths thus continue to be over-represented in the statistics and this will seem to confirm their profile. The police will continue to target black youths - a vicious circle
