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Criminology A-Level > Unit 2 - Criminological theories - 4.1 Assess the use of criminological theories in informing policy development > Flashcards

Unit 2 - Criminological theories - 4.1 Assess the use of criminological theories in informing policy development Flashcards

1
Q

Biological theories influencing policies

What do biological theories believe causes criminality?

A

Criminality is caused by physical abnormalities within the individual

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2
Q

What kinds of policies would biological theories lead to?

A

They aim to change the working of the criminal’s brain or body and cure the condition that causes their criminality

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3
Q

Give three examples of biochemical processes and factors that have been linked to criminality

A
  • Effects of the male sex hormone, testosterone
  • Substance abuse
  • Defincies in diet
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4
Q

Drug treatment

How do drug treatments control criminal or anti-social behaviour?

A

Affecting the body’s biochemical processes to stop criminal or anti-social behaviour

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5
Q

Briefly explain how alcohol treatments can be used through drugs

A

Alcohol abuse can trigger violent behaviour. Antabuse is used to treat alcoholism. It works by stopping the body from breaking down alcohol, causing hangover symptoms if the user drinks even a small amount. This is in the hopes of preventing them from drinking alcohol and in turn reducing violent crime

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6
Q

Briefly explain how heroin addictions can be treated through drugs

A

Heroin addictions often lead to addicts committing crimes to pay for drugs. Methadone is used to treat addicts. It acts as a long-term alternative to heroin or to prevent withdrawal symptoms. Methadone helps to reduce crime as it stops addicts needing to steal to pay for drugs

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7
Q

Briefly explain how sex offenders can be treated through drugs

A

Stilbestrol is a form of ‘chemical castration’ that has been used in prisoners to treat male sex offenders. It is a female hormone that suppresses testosterone as a way of reducing men’s sex drive. It has serious side effects including breast development and feminisation

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8
Q

Briefly explain how drug treatments can be used for managing prisoners

A

Sedatives and tranquillisers such as valium, librium that are used to keep potentially violent or hyperactive prisoners calm

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9
Q

What is Vivitrol?

A

A drug injected into patients to block the effects of Opioids so that they feel no need to continue using Opioids like heroin or morphine

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10
Q

When is the drug administered and how often?

A

After the patient is sober from drugs for 7 days and every 4 weeks

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11
Q

How many addicts come back to prison after getting their first free shot of Vivitrol?

A

30%

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12
Q

Crime control policies : Diet

Briefly explain three ways in which diet can be used to try and change anti-social behaviour

A
  • Gesch et al found that adding vitamins, minerals and fatty acids caused a large reduction in anti-social behaviour (37% reduction in case of violent incidents)
  • Vitamin B3 used to treat forms of schizophrenia, often associated with violent behaviour
  • Dietary changes have been used to try and control hyperactivity. For example, removing foodstuffs containing the artificial colouring Tartrazine from children’s diets
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13
Q

Crime control policies : Surgery

Briefly explain two ways in which surgery can be used to prevent offending

A

Surgical castration - of sex offenders have been used in the past to change offending behaviour. For example, in Denmark and US.

Lobotomy - Procedure that involves cutting the connection between the frontal lobes in the brain and the thalamus. Used to treat sexually motivated and violent criminals. Can have very serious side effects so rarely used

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14
Q

Give an example to illustrate how chemical substances can be used to control crowds

A

Tear gas may be used to control crowds or disperse rioters. It works by causing uncomfortable or distressing sensations, including vomiting, breathing difficulties and disorientation

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15
Q

Genetic theories - Eugenics

What do genetic theories argue about criminality?

A

Criminality is transmitted by inheriting a ‘criminal’ gene

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16
Q

Briefly describe the beliefs of the eugenicists

A

They believe that the human race is in danger of ‘degenerating’ because the poor were breeding at a faster rate compared to the higher classes. As a result, they were passing on the supposedly inferior genes (poverty) more quickly than the higher class were passing on their ‘superior’ genes thus lowering the average intelligence and the moral quality of the population

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17
Q

Compulsory sterilisation

Why did Eugenicists argue that some people should be sterilised?

A

They argued that the ‘genetically unfit’ should be sterilised to stop them passing on their genes

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18
Q

Describe an example of US policy based on the Eugenics

A

In 1927 the US Supreme Court ruled that it was legal to compulsory sterilise the ‘unfit’ including those with learning difficulties for ‘the protection and health of the state’. Other eugenic policies include forcing abortions and denying rights to marry

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19
Q

The Nazis’ ‘racial purity’ policy

Why did the Nazis favour eugenic policies?

A

They believed in purifying the ‘Aryan master race’ by eliminating those who they deemed unfit to breed including physically and mentally disabled people. 400,000 were sterilised against their will and 70,000 were killed under the Nazis’ euthanasia policy

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20
Q

How did the Nazis’ justify the genocide they carried out?

A

Eugenic policies - killing the ‘inferior race’ so that only the ‘Aryan master race’ remained

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21
Q

Which groups were victim of the holocaust?

A

Jews (6 million killed), Gypies (1.5 million), lesbians and gays, disabled people and any other people who the Nazis’ believed were deviant

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22
Q

Individualistic theories influencing policies - Psychoanalysis

Briefly explain how psychoanalysis links to Freud’s theory of personality

A

Psychoanalysis is based on Freud’s theory of personality. This highlights the unconscious conflicts between the id and superego. Psychoanalysis sees a weak superego as a cause of criminality since the person lacks a moral force to curb their selfish instincts. A weak superego can result from inadequate socialisation as a child.

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23
Q

Crime control

What does psychoanalysis involve?

A

It involves bringing these unconscious conflicts and repressed emotions into the conscious mind so they can be revolved

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24
Q

Why did August Aichhorn use psychoanalysis to treat young offenders? How does this link to Bowlby’s maternal deprivation theory?

A

The young offenders had uncaring or absent parents so they had failed to develop loving relationships. Normal socialisation had not taken place so the offenders had not developed a superego. Similar to Bowlby’s idea that maternal deprivation causes criminality.

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25
Q

What did Aichhorn’s methods involve?

A

Hypnosis and lengthy conversations

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26
Q

According to Freud, why did some of his patient’s thoughts have to be pushed away?

A

The thought was unacceptable to the conscious mind

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27
Q

Give an example of a thought that had to be pushed away

A

The wish to kill somebody

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28
Q

What is psychoanalysis investigating?

A

The mind and how you feel and what you think about your feelings

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29
Q

How do psychoanalysis differ from psychiatry?

A

Psychiatry often involves drugs or medications whereas psychoanalysis involves talking to solve problems

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30
Q

Is psychoanalysis effective ? Provide some evidence from Eysenck’s findings.

A

NO!

  • Eysenck thought criminals were neurotic so psychoanalysis was unlikely to work for them
  • Eysenck found that only 44% of neurosis patients showed improvement VS 72% treated by hospitals and GPs
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31
Q

Briefly outline the two problems with psychoanalysis

A

Cost - It is very costly and time consuming as a result never been used on a large scale for treating criminals

Abuse - The analysis determines what is ‘normal’ or not. EG Freud thought that homosexuality was abnormal. This can give rise to abuse

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32
Q

Operant learning and token economics

According to the Operant Learning theory, how is criminal behaviour learned?

A

Reinforcements (rewards) and punishments

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33
Q

What is a ‘token economy’?

A

A behaviour modification programme used in some prisons

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34
Q

Crime control

Briefly explain how a ‘token economy’ works

A
  • The institution draws up a list of desirable behaviours eg obeying the rules
  • When the offender behaves in the desired way, they earn a token
  • Tokens may be exchanged for rewards eg sweets, phone call
  • Through this selective reinforcement, good behaviour becomes more likely and undesirable behaviour becomes less likely
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35
Q

Is the token economy effective?

A

To some extent as it: makes prisoners more manageable, some studies show an improvement in behaviour. However, good behaviour tends to stop once the offender leaves the prison, although offenders tend to return to crime more slowly

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36
Q

Give an example of where this system was used too severely

A

In the US, food and drink were withheld and given as rewards. However, there was heavy opposition to this as many believe it should be a human right to have food and water, not a privilege.

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37
Q

Aversion therapy and Eysenck’s theory

What is Aversion therapy used for?

A

Treating sex offenders

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38
Q

According to Eysenck, why are criminals harder to condition?

A

Because they tend to be strongly extravert and neurotic which means they are more resistant to learning through punishments

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39
Q

How does aversion therapy work?

A

Offenders are asked to think about about an unacceptable sexual fantasy until they are aroused. A strongly adverse stimulus is then administered, such as an electric shock or nausea-inducing drug. The procedure is repeated until the offender comes to associate the deviant arousal and the stimulus. The aim is to stop the thoughts and thus the offending behaviour

40
Q

Is aversion therapy effective?

A

Very limited success, usually only short term. Uses in ‘curing’ gay people has been criticised as human rights abuse

41
Q

Cognitive theories and CBT

According to cognitive theories, what causes offending

A

Our thought processes

42
Q

What does Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) aim to do?

A

Change offender’s thoughts and attitudes so as to change their behaviour

43
Q

CBT - Think first programme

What is the Think first programme?

A

A programme who have one to one and group sessions for repeat offenders on probation

44
Q

What does the Think first programme aim to do?

A

It aims to enable offenders to control their thoughts and behaviour.

45
Q

What does the Think first programme teach?

A

Problem solving skills, consequential thinking, decision making and seeing things from other’s point of view

46
Q

Is the Think first programme effective?

A

Those who completed the course are 30% less likely to be re-convicted than those who received an alternative community sentence. However, not everyone may complete the course

47
Q

CBT - Agression Replacement Training

Who is the ART programme for?

A

Violent and aggressive offenders

48
Q

What does the ART programme involve?

A
  • Interpersonal skills training
  • Moral reasoning training that challenges individuals attitudes by giving them moral dilemmas
  • Anger control techniques , dealing with emotions and providing offenders with alternative actions instead of violence
49
Q

Is the ART programme effective?

A

Lower re-conviction rates. However, some evaluations found that although skills improved, behaviour did not

50
Q

‘What works’

Are all CBT programmes equally successful or equally suitable

A

NO!

51
Q

What does the Home office ‘what works’ policy aim to ensure?

A

That CBT programmes actually reduce offending and so It only accredits programmes that meet their certain criteria

52
Q

What does the ‘what works’ policy criteria include?

A
  • A clear plan and proven methods for altering offenders’ behaviour
  • Careful matching of offenders to the right programme
  • Targeting the risk factors that lead to offending

If a programme meets this criteria they can be accredited

53
Q

Sociological theories influencing theories - Merton and subcultural theories

According to Merton, why do poor people commit crime?

A

Legitimate opportunities are blocked for poor people so they turn to illegal means of making money

54
Q

According to subcultural theories, what causes crime?

A

Blocked opportunities. Different subcultures cope with these blocked opportunities by becoming professional criminals, joining gangs or dropping out

55
Q

According to sociological theories, how could society’s structure be made more equal?

A
  • Policies to tackle poverty, better welfare benefits, wages and job security would reduce crime by giving everyone a more equal chance of achieving success by legal means
  • Equal opportunities in school would reduce failure rates for working-class students making them less likely to have status frustration and join delinquent subcultures
  • Education in prison, half of UK prisoners reading level of 11 year old. Better education in prisons would help inmates gain skills to get a good job and good straight
56
Q

Research improving benefit

How much money does Finland give its citizens monthly?

A

$660

57
Q

Who receives these benefits?

A

Only un-employed people

58
Q

What are the problems with these benefits?

A

Someone has to pay for them

59
Q

Labelling theory

What does the Labelling theory argue is the cause of crime?

A

Result of self-fulfilling prophecy

60
Q

What does labelling someone as a criminal do?

A

It risks them living up to their label and committing further, more serious crimes

61
Q

Briefly describe the several crime control policies influenced by Labelling theory

A

Decriminalisation - decriminalising minor offences such as possession of cannabis would mean fewer young people are labelled as criminal. A criminal record can prevent them from getting a job and lead to secondary deviance (further offending)

Diversion policies - aims to keep an offender out of the justice system so as to avoid labelling them as criminals. Some diversion policies are informal like when police use their discretion not to charge someone. Others are formal, such as requiring an officer to attend a anger management programme to avoid prosecution

Reintegrative shaming - Braithwaite identifies two types of ‘shaming’ of labelling :

  • Disintegrative shaming, where both the crime and the criminal are labelled as bad and the offender is excluded from society. This can push them into further crime
  • Reintegrative shaming, labels the act not the actor, as if to say,’ he has done a bad thing’, rather than ‘he is a bad person’. It avoids stigmatising the offender as evil, while still encouraging them to repent and encouraging others to admit them back into society
62
Q

How effective are the labelling theory policies?

A

Evidence shows crime control policies based on labelling theory can deal successfully with minor offences and young offenders. By avoiding labelling people as criminals and keeping them out of the justice system, they avoid pushing people into a deviant career

63
Q

Right realism - Situational crime prevention (SCP)

How do SCP policies aim to reduce crime?

A

By reducing the opportunities for crime by increasing the risks or difficulties of committing the crime and reducing the rewards

64
Q

What theory is Situational crime prevention based on?

A

The rational choice theory

65
Q

Give three examples of ‘target hardening’ measures?

A

Locking cars, employing security guards and re-shaping the environment to ‘design crime out’ of an area

66
Q

Is SCP effective?

A

Not really! It mainly causes displacement, if criminals are rational actors, when they find a target too hard to crack, they will simply look for a softer one. This could result in more vunerable targets being victimised more because other targets have been hardened

67
Q

Right realism - Environmental crime prevention

According to Wilson and Kelling’s ‘broken windows theory’, what is the cause of crime?

A

A disorderly neighbourhood sends out the message that nobody cares. This attracts offenders, who calculate that their activities will not be punished

68
Q

Briefly describe the two elements of Wilson and Kelling’s proposed policy

A
  • An environmental improvement strategy, all signs of disorder must be tackled promptly
  • A Zero tolerance policing strategy (ZTP) - zero-tolerance approach toward all crime, even minor crimes
69
Q

Briefly outline four reasons why ZTP may not be effective

A
  • Crime fell after ZTP was introduced in New York in the 1990’s, but could have been due to other factors. In other us cities crime fell even when ZTP hadn’t been adopted
  • ZTP can lead to targeting of ethnic minorities due to police racism
  • Males and Macallair found that ZTP curfews can increase juvenile crime: by removing law-abiding youths off the streets, they leave the streets emptier and favourable to crime
  • ZTP and SCP fail to tackle structural causes of crime such as inequality. They focus on low level street crime, ignoring crimes of the powerful - White collar and state crimes
70
Q

Right realism - Penal population and imprisonment

According to right realists, why would tougher penalties deter criminals?

A

More risks over reward would deter criminals as right realists believe criminals use rational choice before committing crime

71
Q

Briefly outline two functions of prison according to right realists

A

Incapacitation - Criminals become incapable of harming the public, jail takes them ‘out of circulation’

Deterrence - Criminals think twice before offending when they see tough punishments handed out

72
Q

What is meant by ‘penal populism’?

A

Politicians believed tough penalties were popular with the public so used harsher penalties for crime

73
Q

Briefly outline the three changes to sentencing introduced by the Conservative government in the 1997 Crime Act

A
  • Automatic life sentences for a second serious sexual or violent offence
  • A minimum of 7 years for a third Class A drug trafficking conviction
  • Minimum of 3 years for a third domestic burglary conviction
74
Q

What policies did Tony Blair’s government introduce in 1997?

A

ASBO’s and Curfews

75
Q

What has been the impact of penal populism?

A

35,000 more prisoners from 1993 to 2021

76
Q

What do the statistics from 2018 show about the problems of penal populism?

A

Increase in suicides, homicides, self harm incidents and assaults

77
Q

Is prison effective?

Briefly evaluate how effective prison is in relation to the following; Incapacitation, rehabilitation, recidivism and deterrence

A

Incapacitation - Offenders cannot commit crimes against the public while they are in jail however they can commit crimes on fellow inmates and staff

Rehabilitation - One function of prison is to rehabilitate offenders but overcrowding and budget cuts means many prisoners lack access to education, skills training and treatment which would help them become law-abiding citizens

Recidivism - Ineffective in preventing reoffending. 48% of adults are re-convicted within a year of their release

Deterrence - Right realists argue that the risk of jail deters would-be criminals who make rational choices about offending. However, studies show that risk of imprisonment doesn’t deter offenders enough to affect crime rates

78
Q

Left realists

According to left realists, what is the root cause of crime?

A

The unequal and unfair structure of society

79
Q

Why do left realists suggest that policies to reduce inequality will reduce crime?

A

Left realists believe that relative deprivation causes crime and if they can resolve the unequal structure of society and the subsequent relative deprivation crime will be reduced

80
Q

Why do left realists suggest that the police are losing public support?

A

They are widely distrusted and as a result their information dries up and so they have to rely on ‘military policing’ such as stop and search which creates further loss of co-operation, meaning they cannot tackle crime effectively

81
Q

How can the police win back public support?

A

They must involve local communities in deciding their priorities. They must focus on crimes that victimise the disadvantaged such as domestic abuse and hate crimes rather than offences such as possession of soft drugs

82
Q

Briefly outline three successes there have been for left realist policing policies

A
  • Many forces now make cannabis possession a low priority crime
  • Domestic violence and hate crimes are now a high priority
  • Neighbourhood policing and police community support officers (PCSO’s) have been introduced to build better relationships with communities
83
Q

What Is meant by a ‘multi-agency approach’?

A

Left realists argue that crime control must involve many other agencies from the police : schools, youth services, housing departments, social services and the NHS

84
Q

Give an example of a multi-agency approach by a campaign?

A

No Knives Better Lives. This campaign involves a wide range of agencies, including schools, local councils, youth services and the police

85
Q

Briefly describe one policy advocated by left realists that the new Labour governments introduced

A

‘Tough on crime, tough on the causes of crime’. For example, Labour invested in the improvement to deprived neighbourhoods - an example of being tough on the causes of crime

86
Q

Surveillance theories

Briefly explain how CCTV can be seen as a modern form of the Panopticon

A

Its a surveillance system in which prison guards can observe inmates without the prisoners knowing whether they were being watched

87
Q

According to Gill and Loveday, why is CCTV ineffective?

A

Very few criminals are put off by CCTV

88
Q

Give an example of when CCTV has been effective?

A

Identification of David Copeland, terrorist convicted of a nail-bombing campaign

89
Q

According to critics, what is CCTV’s real function?

A

To reassure the public, even though it makes little difference to their security

90
Q

What evidence is there that CCTV may enable stereotyping to occur?

A

Norris and Armstrong found that CCTV operators using racial stereotypes, singling out black youths for surveillance

91
Q

What is meant by ‘surveillance creep’?

A

Where technology introduced for one purpose gets extended to another. Automatic Number Plate Recognition was introduced in response to an IRA bombing campaign in 1990-1993. They failed to identify a single bomber so instead they used the cameras to identify untaxed vehicles

92
Q

Profilling

What does profiling involve?

A

Using data to draw up a statistical picture of likely offenders, often using official crime statistics to do so. Individuals can be profiled according to special characteristics to decide what degree of risk they pose

93
Q

Briefly explain how profiling Is used by airport security

A

Airport security screening checks are based on offenders ‘risk factors’ . Using information gathered about passengers (sex, age), they can be given a risk score and anyone scoring above a certain level can be stopped, questioned and searched etc

94
Q

Briefly explain why profiling can be discriminatory

A

A profile based on official crime statistics may show certain groups as more likely to offend eg black youths

95
Q

Briefly outline how profiling can create a self-fulfilling prophecy

A

The police act on the profile by stopping black youths more than any other groups. Any black youths who are actually offending are more likely to be caught than offenders from other groups. Black youths thus continue to be over-represented in the statistics and this will seem to confirm their profile. The police will continue to target black youths - a vicious circle

Criminology A-Level (9 decks)

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