Unit 2 Condensed

Question 1

Classical conditioning

Answer 1

We learn to associate two stimuli and thus anticipate events. Behavior is involuntary.

Question 2

Operant conditioning

Answer 2

We learn to associate a behavior and the resulting consequence and thus to repeat acts followed by good results. Behavior is voluntary.

Question 3

Law stating that if a response is followed by a pleasurable consequence, it will tend to be repeated, and if followed by an unpleasant consequence, it will tend not to be repeated.

Answer 3

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

Question 4

Shaping

Answer 4

the reinforcement of simple steps in behavior that lead to a desired, more complex behavior using successive approximations

Question 5

Successive Approximations

Answer 5

small steps in behavior, one after the other, that lead to a particular goal behavior.

Question 6

Positive Reinforcement

Answer 6

Strengthens a response by presenting something pleasant after the response

Question 7

Negative Reinforcement

Answer 7

Strengthens a response by removing or reducing something unpleasant

Question 8

Primary reinforcer

Answer 8

stimuli that are naturally preferred or enjoyed by the organism, such as food, water, and relief from pain

Question 9

Secondary reinforcer

Answer 9

A learned reinforcer that gets its reinforcing power through association with a primary reinforcer

Question 10

Ratio

Answer 10

Based on the number of responses that the organism engages in

Question 11

Interval

Answer 11

Based on the time that elapses between reinforcement

Question 12

Fixed-ratio schedule

Answer 12

Reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses (e.g., loyalty punch cards).

Question 13

Variable-ratio schedule

Answer 13

Reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. Rapid responding; difficult to extinguish (e.g., gambling)

Question 14

Fixed-interval schedule

Answer 14

Reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed (e.g., studying only when an exam draws near, a paycheck every two weeks).

Question 15

Variable-interval schedule

Answer 15

Reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals, which produces slow, steady responses (e.g., pop quizzes, checking Instagram).

Question 16

Positive punishment

Answer 16

weakens a response by resenting something unpleasant after the response

Question 17

Negative punishment

Answer 17

weakens a response by reducing or removing something pleasant

Question 18

Encoding

Answer 18

The process by which we place the things that we experience into memory

Question 19

elaborative encoding

Answer 19

a method of transferring information from Short Term Memory into Long Term Memory by making that information meaningful in some way

Question 20

Atkinson-Shiffrin theory

Answer 20

Once information enters the brain, it must be either stored or maintained and the information which is stored goes into three distinct memory systems: the sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory

Question 21

Short-term memory

Answer 21

Small amounts of information can be temporarily kept for more than a few seconds, but usually for less than one minute

Question 22

Long-term memory

Answer 22

The memory storage that can hold information for days, months, and years

Question 23

Average capacity of short-term memory

Answer 23

about seven items or pieces of information, plus or minus two items—or from five to nine bits of information.

Question 24

Chunking

Answer 24

The process of organizing information into smaller groupings, or chunks, thereby increasing the number of items that can be held in STM.

Question 25

Implicit memory

Answer 25

type of long-term memory including memory for skills, procedures, habits, and conditioned responses

Question 26

Explicit memory

Answer 26

type of long-term memory containing information that is conscious and known. Includes episodic and semantic memories.

Question 27

ability to match a piece of information or a stimulus to a stored image or fact

Answer 27

recognition

Question 28

Recall

Answer 28

Memory retrieval in which the information to be retrieved must be “pulled” from memory with very few external cues

Question 29

the ability to think, learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt to new situations

Answer 29

intelligience

Question 30

Reliability (test)

Answer 30

the tendency of a test to produce the same scores again and again each time it is given to the same people

Question 31

Validity (test)

Answer 31

the degree to which a test actually measures what it’s supposed to measure (academic achievement)

Question 32

Standardization

Answer 32

involves developing uniform procedures for administering and scoring a test, as well as creating norms, or performance standards for the test

Question 33

IQ calculation

Answer 33

mental age / chronological age * 100

Question 34

Gifted cutoff score

Answer 34

IQ ≥ 130

Question 35

Intellectual disability cutoff score

Answer 35

IQ < 70

Question 36

Gartner’s theory of intelligence

Answer 36

Theory about Eight Specific Intelligences: linguistic logical/mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist existential (?), and musical

Question 37

Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence

Answer 37

Theory that people may display more or less analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, and practical intelligence

Question 38

Prenatal development begins at _______ and continues to _______

Answer 38

Begins at conception and continues to birth

Question 39

Germinal Stage of prenatal development

Answer 39

(Weeks 1-2): conception until implantation

Question 40

Embryonic Stage of prenatal development

Answer 40

(Weeks 3-8): differentiation of tissue and organ formation

Question 41

Fetal Stage of prenatal development

Answer 41

(Weeks 9-40): development of functionality

Question 42

Embryonic period is…

Answer 42

Fast paced; all major organs constructed—greatest risk for damage and miscarriage

Question 43

Amygdala during puberty

Answer 43

Limbic system is early to develop, meaning emotions are strong.

Question 44

Prefrontal cortex during puberty

Answer 44

Late to develop, reasoning and decision making isn’t as strong.

Question 45

Schemas

Answer 45

Patterns of knowledge in long-term memory that help children remember, organize, and respond to information.

Question 46

Assimilation

Answer 46

use already developed schemas to understand new information.

Question 47

Accommodation

Answer 47

learning new information, and thus changing the schema.

Question 48

Sensori-motor stage of cognitive development

Answer 48

(birth to 2 years old): experiencing the world through senses and actions

Question 49

Preoperational stage of cognitive development

Answer 49

(2 to 6-7 yo): Representing things with words and images. Use intuition, not logic.

Question 50

Concrete operational stage of cognitive development

Answer 50

(7 to 11 yo): Thinking logically. Grasping arithmetics and analogies.

Question 51

Formal operational stage of cognitive development

Answer 51

(12 to adulthood): Abstract reasoning

Question 52

Imaginary audience

Answer 52

Teens feel that everyone is constantly watching them

Question 53

Authoritarian parenting

Answer 53

Demanding but not responsive. Parents are controlling and punitive.

Question 54

Authoritative parenting

Answer 54

Are demanding, but they are also responsive to the needs and opinions of the child

Question 55

Permissive parenting

Answer 55

Not demanding but responsive. make few demands, give little punishment, and generally allow their children to make their own rules, but they are warm and affectionate