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Psychology 121 > Unit 2 > Flashcards

Unit 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Behaviorism

A

Focuses on the idea that all behaviors are learned through interaction with the environment.

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2
Q

Classical conditioning

A

We learn to associate two stimuli and thus anticipate events. Behavior is involuntary.

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3
Q

Operant conditioning

A

We learn to associate a behavior and the resulting consequence and thus to repeat acts followed by good results. Behavior is voluntary.

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4
Q

Observational learning

A

Learning by observing the behavior of others

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5
Q

Unconditioned stimulus

A

a naturally occurring stimulus that leads to an involuntary response

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6
Q

Unconditioned response

A

an involuntary response to a naturally occurring or unconditioned stimulus

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7
Q

Conditioned stimulus

A

a stimulus that becomes able to produce a learned reflex response by being paired with the original unconditioned stimulus

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8
Q

Conditioned response

A

learned reflex response to a conditioned stimulus

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9
Q

Neutral stimulus

A

Something that does not naturally produce a response.

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10
Q

Acquisition

A

the initial learning of the connection between a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus takes place

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11
Q

Generalization

A

The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the Conditioned Stimulus

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12
Q

Discrimination

A

The tendency to respond differently to stimuli that are similar but not identical

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13
Q

Spontaneous recovery

A

After a conditioned response starts to go extinct, the conditioned stimulus may still produce the behavior again. If it occurs without the US, then it will go extinct again.

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14
Q

Taste aversion

A

Learning to avoid a food that made an organism sick ONE time

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15
Q

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

A

Law stating that if a response is followed by a pleasurable consequence, it will tend to be repeated, and if followed by an unpleasant consequence, it will tend not to be repeated.

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16
Q

Shaping

A

the reinforcement of simple steps in behavior that lead to a desired, more complex behavior using successive approximations

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17
Q

Successive Approximations

A

small steps in behavior, one after the other, that lead to a particular goal behavior.

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18
Q

Reinforcement

A

Anything that increases the probability that a response will occur again

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19
Q

Positive Reinforcement

A

Strengthens a response by presenting something pleasant after the response

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20
Q

Negative Reinforcement

A

Strengthens a response by removing or reducing something unpleasant

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21
Q

Primary reinforcer

A

stimuli that are naturally preferred or enjoyed by the organism, such as food, water, and relief from pain

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22
Q

Secondary reinforcer

A

A learned reinforcer that gets its reinforcing power through association with a primary reinforcer

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23
Q

Partial reinforcement

A

Reinforces a response only part of the time. Learning is slower but shows greater resistance to extinction

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24
Q

Continuous reinforcement

A

Reinforces the desired response each time it occurs. Learning is rapid but not necessarily long-lasting.

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25
Ratio
Based on the number of responses that the organism engages in
26
Interval
Based on the time that elapses between reinforcement
27
Fixed-ratio schedule
Reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses (e.g., loyalty punch cards).
28
Variable-ratio schedule
Reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. Rapid responding; difficult to extinguish (e.g., gambling)
29
Fixed-interval schedule
Reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed (e.g., studying only when an exam draws near, a paycheck every two weeks).
30
Variable-interval schedule
Reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals, which produces slow, steady responses (e.g., pop quizzes, checking Instagram).
31
Positive punishment
weakens a response by resenting something unpleasant after the response
32
Negative punishment
weakens a response by reducing or removing something pleasant
33
Time out
a form of mild punishment by removal (negative punishment) in which a person is placed in isolation away from the attention of others
34
Encoding
The process by which we place the things that we experience into memory
35
a method of transferring information from Short Term Memory into Long Term Memory by making that information meaningful in some way
elaborative encoding
36
Atkinson-Shiffrin theory
Once information enters the brain, it must be either stored or maintained and the information which is stored goes into three distinct memory systems: the sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory
37
Sensory Memory
The brief storage of sensory information
38
Short-term memory
Small amounts of information can be temporarily kept for more than a few seconds, but usually for less than one minute
39
Long-term memory
The memory storage that can hold information for days, months, and years
40
Echoic Memory
the sensory memory for sound
41
Iconic Memory
sensory memory fr visual information
42
Average capacity of short-term memory
about seven items or pieces of information, plus or minus two items—or from five to nine bits of information.
43
Chunking
The process of organizing information into smaller groupings, or chunks, thereby increasing the number of items that can be held in STM.
44
Implicit memory
type of long-term memory including memory for skills, procedures, habits, and conditioned responses
45
Explicit memory
type of long-term memory containing information that is conscious and known. Includes episodic and semantic memories.
46
Episodic memory
The firsthand experiences that we have had
47
Semantic memory
Our knowledge of facts and concepts about the world
48
ability to match a piece of information or a stimulus to a stored image or fact
recognition
49
Recall
Memory retrieval in which the information to be retrieved must be “pulled” from memory with very few external cues
50
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
We are certain we know something that we are trying to recall, but cannot quite come up with it
51
Serial position effect
information at the beginning and the end of a body of information more accurately remembered than the information in the middle
52
Retrograde amnesia
loss of memory from the point of some injury or trauma backward, or loss of memory for the past
53
Anterograde amnesia
loss of memory from the point of injury or trauma forward, or the inability to form new long-term memories
54
the ability to think, learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt to new situations
intelligience
55
Reliability (test)
the tendency of a test to produce the same scores again and again each time it is given to the same people
56
Validity (test)
the degree to which a test actually measures what it’s supposed to measure (academic achievement)
57
Standardization
involves developing uniform procedures for administering and scoring a test, as well as creating norms, or performance standards for the test
58
IQ calculation
mental age / chronological age * 100
59
Normal distribution
the pattern of scores usually observed in a variable that clusters around its average
60
Gifted cutoff score
IQ ≥ 130
61
Intellectual disability cutoff score
IQ < 70
62
Gartner’s theory of intelligence
Theory about Eight Specific Intelligences: linguistic logical/mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist existential (?), and musical
63
Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence
Theory that people may display more or less analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, and practical intelligence
64
Prenatal development begins at _______ and continues to _______
Begins at conception and continues to birth
65
Germinal Stage of prenatal development
(Weeks 1-2): conception until implantation
66
Embryonic Stage of prenatal development
(Weeks 3-8): differentiation of tissue and organ formation
67
Fetal Stage of prenatal development
(Weeks 9-40): development of functionality
68
Embryonic period is...
Fast paced; all major organs constructed—greatest risk for damage and miscarriage
69
Teratogens are...
agents that cause birth defects. Embryonic period is the most critical point.
70
Infants prefer...
human faces to other stimuli, especially mother’s face. Prefer attractive-looking people
71
Puberty
Rapid skeletal and sexual maturation. Begins at beginning of adolescence.
72
Amygdala during puberty
Limbic system is early to develop, meaning emotions are strong.
73
Prefrontal cortex during puberty
Late to develop, reasoning and decision making isn’t as strong.
74
Peak of physical development
During early adulthood, the 20s
75
Schemas
Patterns of knowledge in long-term memory that help children remember, organize, and respond to information.
76
Assimilation
use already developed schemas to understand new information.
77
Accommodation
learning new information, and thus changing the schema.
78
Sensori-motor stage of cognitive development
(birth to 2 years old): experiencing the world through senses and actions
79
Preoperational stage of cognitive development
(2 to 6-7 yo): Representing things with words and images. Use intuition, not logic.
80
Concrete operational stage of cognitive development
(7 to 11 yo): Thinking logically. Grasping arithmetics and analogies.
81
Formal operational stage of cognitive development
(12 to adulthood): Abstract reasoning
82
Conservation
The understanding that changes in the form of an object do not necessarily mean changes in the quantity of the object.
83
Lack of conservation (preoperational stage)
Kids in preoperational stage don’t understand conservation.
84
Egocentrism (preoperational stage)
Unable to see and understand other people’s viewpoints.
85
Adolescent egocentrism
Can’t distinguish between what they think others think of them and what people actually think of them.
86
Personal fable
Adolescents construct a fantasy of their personal future
87
Imaginary audience
Teens feel that everyone is constantly watching them
88
Contact comfort (Harlow)
The infant's need for physical closeness and touching
89
Trust vs. mistrust (Erikson)
A person who does not develop a sense of trust (Erikson's first crisis) may find it challenging as an adult to form a positive intimate relationship.
90
Identity vs. role confusion
The main social task of the adolescent is the search for a unique identity and the ability to answer the question, “Who am I?”
91
Authoritarian parenting
Demanding but not responsive. Parents are controlling and punitive.
92
Authoritative parenting
Are demanding, but they are also responsive to the needs and opinions of the child
93
Permissive parenting
Not demanding but responsive. make few demands, give little punishment, and generally allow their children to make their own rules, but they are warm and affectionate
94
Neglectful parenting
undemanding and unresponsive
95
Emerging adulthood
The period between the late teens and late twenties. Also called “extended adolescence”

Psychology 121 (5 decks)

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