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Psychology 121 > Unit 2 > Flashcards

Unit 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

Behaviorism

A

Focuses on the idea that all behaviors are learned through interaction with the environment.

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2
Q

Classical conditioning

A

We learn to associate two stimuli and thus anticipate events. Behavior is involuntary.

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3
Q

Operant conditioning

A

We learn to associate a behavior and the resulting consequence and thus to repeat acts followed by good results. Behavior is voluntary.

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4
Q

Observational learning

A

Learning by observing the behavior of others

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5
Q

Unconditioned stimulus

A

a naturally occurring stimulus that leads to an involuntary response

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6
Q

Unconditioned response

A

an involuntary response to a naturally occurring or unconditioned stimulus

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7
Q

Conditioned stimulus

A

a stimulus that becomes able to produce a learned reflex response by being paired with the original unconditioned stimulus

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8
Q

Conditioned response

A

learned reflex response to a conditioned stimulus

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9
Q

Neutral stimulus

A

Something that does not naturally produce a response.

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10
Q

Acquisition

A

the initial learning of the connection between a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus takes place

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11
Q

Generalization

A

The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the Conditioned Stimulus

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12
Q

Discrimination

A

The tendency to respond differently to stimuli that are similar but not identical

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13
Q

Spontaneous recovery

A

After a conditioned response starts to go extinct, the conditioned stimulus may still produce the behavior again. If it occurs without the US, then it will go extinct again.

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14
Q

Taste aversion

A

Learning to avoid a food that made an organism sick ONE time

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15
Q

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

A

Law stating that if a response is followed by a pleasurable consequence, it will tend to be repeated, and if followed by an unpleasant consequence, it will tend not to be repeated.

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16
Q

Shaping

A

the reinforcement of simple steps in behavior that lead to a desired, more complex behavior using successive approximations

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17
Q

Successive Approximations

A

small steps in behavior, one after the other, that lead to a particular goal behavior.

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18
Q

Reinforcement

A

Anything that increases the probability that a response will occur again

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19
Q

Positive Reinforcement

A

Strengthens a response by presenting something pleasant after the response

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20
Q

Negative Reinforcement

A

Strengthens a response by removing or reducing something unpleasant

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21
Q

Primary reinforcer

A

stimuli that are naturally preferred or enjoyed by the organism, such as food, water, and relief from pain

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22
Q

Secondary reinforcer

A

A learned reinforcer that gets its reinforcing power through association with a primary reinforcer

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23
Q

Partial reinforcement

A

Reinforces a response only part of the time. Learning is slower but shows greater resistance to extinction

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24
Q

Continuous reinforcement

A

Reinforces the desired response each time it occurs. Learning is rapid but not necessarily long-lasting.

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25
Q

Ratio

A

Based on the number of responses that the organism engages in

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26
Q

Interval

A

Based on the time that elapses between reinforcement

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27
Q

Fixed-ratio schedule

A

Reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses (e.g., loyalty punch cards).

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28
Q

Variable-ratio schedule

A

Reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. Rapid responding; difficult to extinguish (e.g., gambling)

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29
Q

Fixed-interval schedule

A

Reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed (e.g., studying only when an exam draws near, a paycheck every two weeks).

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30
Q

Variable-interval schedule

A

Reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals, which produces slow, steady responses (e.g., pop quizzes, checking Instagram).

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31
Q

Positive punishment

A

weakens a response by resenting something unpleasant after the response

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32
Q

Negative punishment

A

weakens a response by reducing or removing something pleasant

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33
Q

Time out

A

a form of mild punishment by removal (negative punishment) in which a person is placed in isolation away from the attention of others

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34
Q

Encoding

A

The process by which we place the things that we experience into memory

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35
Q

a method of transferring information from Short Term Memory into Long Term Memory by making that information meaningful in some way

A

elaborative encoding

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36
Q

Atkinson-Shiffrin theory

A

Once information enters the brain, it must be either stored or maintained and the information which is stored goes into three distinct memory systems: the sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory

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37
Q

Sensory Memory

A

The brief storage of sensory information

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38
Q

Short-term memory

A

Small amounts of information can be temporarily kept for more than a few seconds, but usually for less than one minute

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39
Q

Long-term memory

A

The memory storage that can hold information for days, months, and years

40
Q

Echoic Memory

A

the sensory memory for sound

41
Q

Iconic Memory

A

sensory memory fr visual information

42
Q

Average capacity of short-term memory

A

about seven items or pieces of information, plus or minus two items—or from five to nine bits of information.

43
Q

Chunking

A

The process of organizing information into smaller groupings, or chunks, thereby increasing the number of items that can be held in STM.

44
Q

Implicit memory

A

type of long-term memory including memory for skills, procedures, habits, and conditioned responses

45
Q

Explicit memory

A

type of long-term memory containing information that is conscious and known. Includes episodic and semantic memories.

46
Q

Episodic memory

A

The firsthand experiences that we have had

47
Q

Semantic memory

A

Our knowledge of facts and concepts about the world

48
Q

ability to match a piece of information or a stimulus to a stored image or fact

A

recognition

49
Q

Recall

A

Memory retrieval in which the information to be retrieved must be “pulled” from memory with very few external cues

50
Q

Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

A

We are certain we know something that we are trying to recall, but cannot quite come up with it

51
Q

Serial position effect

A

information at the beginning and the end of a body of information more accurately remembered than the information in the middle

52
Q

Retrograde amnesia

A

loss of memory from the point of some injury or trauma backward, or loss of memory for the past

53
Q

Anterograde amnesia

A

loss of memory from the point of injury or trauma forward, or the inability to form new long-term memories

54
Q

the ability to think, learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt to new situations

A

intelligience

55
Q

Reliability (test)

A

the tendency of a test to produce the same scores again and again each time it is given to the same people

56
Q

Validity (test)

A

the degree to which a test actually measures what it’s supposed to measure (academic achievement)

57
Q

Standardization

A

involves developing uniform procedures for administering and scoring a test, as well as creating norms, or performance standards for the test

58
Q

IQ calculation

A

mental age / chronological age * 100

59
Q

Normal distribution

A

the pattern of scores usually observed in a variable that clusters around its average

60
Q

Gifted cutoff score

A

IQ ≥ 130

61
Q

Intellectual disability cutoff score

A

IQ < 70

62
Q

Gartner’s theory of intelligence

A

Theory about Eight Specific Intelligences: linguistic logical/mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist existential (?), and musical

63
Q

Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence

A

Theory that people may display more or less analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, and practical intelligence

64
Q

Prenatal development begins at _______ and continues to _______

A

Begins at conception and continues to birth

65
Q

Germinal Stage of prenatal development

A

(Weeks 1-2): conception until implantation

66
Q

Embryonic Stage of prenatal development

A

(Weeks 3-8): differentiation of tissue and organ formation

67
Q

Fetal Stage of prenatal development

A

(Weeks 9-40): development of functionality

68
Q

Embryonic period is…

A

Fast paced; all major organs constructed—greatest risk for damage and miscarriage

69
Q

Teratogens are…

A

agents that cause birth defects. Embryonic period is the most critical point.

70
Q

Infants prefer…

A

human faces to other stimuli, especially mother’s face. Prefer attractive-looking people

71
Q

Puberty

A

Rapid skeletal and sexual maturation. Begins at beginning of adolescence.

72
Q

Amygdala during puberty

A

Limbic system is early to develop, meaning emotions are strong.

73
Q

Prefrontal cortex during puberty

A

Late to develop, reasoning and decision making isn’t as strong.

74
Q

Peak of physical development

A

During early adulthood, the 20s

75
Q

Schemas

A

Patterns of knowledge in long-term memory that help children remember, organize, and respond to information.

76
Q

Assimilation

A

use already developed schemas to understand new information.

77
Q

Accommodation

A

learning new information, and thus changing the schema.

78
Q

Sensori-motor stage of cognitive development

A

(birth to 2 years old): experiencing the world through senses and actions

79
Q

Preoperational stage of cognitive development

A

(2 to 6-7 yo): Representing things with words and images. Use intuition, not logic.

80
Q

Concrete operational stage of cognitive development

A

(7 to 11 yo): Thinking logically. Grasping arithmetics and analogies.

81
Q

Formal operational stage of cognitive development

A

(12 to adulthood): Abstract reasoning

82
Q

Conservation

A

The understanding that changes in the form of an object do not necessarily mean changes in the quantity of the object.

83
Q

Lack of conservation (preoperational stage)

A

Kids in preoperational stage don’t understand conservation.

84
Q

Egocentrism (preoperational stage)

A

Unable to see and understand other people’s viewpoints.

85
Q

Adolescent egocentrism

A

Can’t distinguish between what they think others think of them and what people actually think of them.

86
Q

Personal fable

A

Adolescents construct a fantasy of their personal future

87
Q

Imaginary audience

A

Teens feel that everyone is constantly watching them

88
Q

Contact comfort (Harlow)

A

The infant’s need for physical closeness and touching

89
Q

Trust vs. mistrust (Erikson)

A

A person who does not develop a sense of trust (Erikson’s first crisis) may find it challenging as an adult to form a positive intimate relationship.

90
Q

Identity vs. role confusion

A

The main social task of the adolescent is the search for a unique identity and the ability to answer the question, “Who am I?”

91
Q

Authoritarian parenting

A

Demanding but not responsive. Parents are controlling and punitive.

92
Q

Authoritative parenting

A

Are demanding, but they are also responsive to the needs and opinions of the child

93
Q

Permissive parenting

A

Not demanding but responsive. make few demands, give little punishment, and generally allow their children to make their own rules, but they are warm and affectionate

94
Q

Neglectful parenting

A

undemanding and unresponsive

95
Q

Emerging adulthood

A

The period between the late teens and late twenties. Also called “extended adolescence”

Psychology 121 (5 decks)

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