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Biology Grade 11 > Unit 2 > Flashcards

Unit 2 Flashcards

1
Q

heredity (p. 138)

A

the passing of traits from parents to offspring

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2
Q

genetics (p. 138)

A

variation of inherited characteristics

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3
Q

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) (p. 138)

A

carries genetic information in cells

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4
Q

gene (p. 138)

A

DNA molecule that codes for a particular trait; found on a chromosome

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5
Q

locus (p. 138

A

the location of a gene on a chromosome

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6
Q

polyploid (p. 139)

A

having more than two sets of chromosomes

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7
Q

asexual reproduction (p. 139)

A

the production of offspring from a single parent; the genetic makeup of the offspring is identical to that of the parent

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8
Q

sexual reproduction (p. 140)

A

the production of offspring from the fusion of two sex cells (usually from two different parents); the genetic makeup of the offspring is different from that of either parent

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9
Q

fragmentation (p. 143)

A

a method of asexual reproduction in which body fragment of the parent organism develops into a mature individual

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10
Q

mitosis (p. 143)

A

eukaryotic cell divides the genetic material in its nucleus into two new identical nuclei

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11
Q

interphase (p. 143)

A

when the genetic material (in the form of chromatin) is duplicated

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12
Q

chromatin (p. 143)

A

the tangled strands of DNA and protein within a eukaryotic nucleus

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13
Q

sister chromatid (p. 143)

A

the identical copy of a single chromosome that remains attached to the original chromosome at the centromere

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14
Q

cytokinesis (p. 145)

A

eukaryotic cell divides its cytoplasm into two new daughter cells

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15
Q

cloning (p. 146)

A

the process of producing one individual that is genetically identical to another, using a single cell or tissue

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16
Q

biotechnology (p. 146)

A

the use and modification of organisms for applications in engineering, industry, and medicine

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17
Q

genetically modified organism (p. 148)

A

an organism in which the genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques

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18
Q

gamete (p. 152)

A

a sex cell

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19
Q

fertilization (p. 152)

A

the formation of a zygote by the joining together to two gametes

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20
Q

zygote (p. 152)

A

a cell produced by the fusion of two gametes

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21
Q

ova (p. 152)

A

female sex cells (egg cells)

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22
Q

meiosis (p. 153)

A

a two-stage cell divisionin which the resulting daughter cells have half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell; results in the formation of gametes or spores

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23
Q

homologous chromosomes (p. 153)

A

matching pairs of chromosomes, similar in size and carrying information for the same genes.

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24
Q

tetrad (p. 154)

A

a pair of homologous chromosomes, each with two sister chromatids

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25
Q

synapsis (p. 154)

A

the physical pairing up of homologous chromosomes during prophase I of meiosis

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26
Q

crossing over (p. 154)

A

the exchange of chromosome segments between homologous pairs during synapsis

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27
Q

gametogenesis (p. 157)

A

the production of gametes (sex cells) in animals

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28
Q

spermatogenesis (p. 157)

A

the production of mature sperm cells

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29
Q

oogenesis (p. 157)

A

the production of mature egg cells

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30
Q

karyotype (p. 158)

A

the chromosomes of an individual that have been sorted and arranged according to size and type

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31
Q

sex chromosomes (p. 158)

A

chromosomes that differ in males and females of the same species; the combination of sex chromosomes determines the sex of the offspring

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32
Q

autosomes (p. 159)

A

non-sex chromosomes

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33
Q

non-disjunction (p. 161)

A

the failure of homologous chromosomes to move to opposite poles of the cell during meiosis; results in an abnormal number of chromosomes in the daughter cells

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34
Q

trisomy (p. 161)

A

a chromosomal abnormality in which there are three homologous chromosomes in place of a homologous pair

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35
Q

monosomy (p. 161)

A

a chromosomal abnormality in which there is a single chromosome in place of a homologous pair

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36
Q

Down syndrome (p. 162)

A

a chromosomal abnormality in which an individual has three copies of chromosome number 21; also referred to as trisomy 21

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37
Q

prenatal testing (p. 163)

A

testing for a genetic order that occurs prior to birth

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38
Q

maternal inheritance (p. 167)

A

a type of inheritance in which a zygote formed from
two gametes inherits cytoplasmic DNA from only the female gamete

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39
Q

paternal inheritance (p. 168)

A

a type of inheritance in which a zygote formed from two gametes inherits cytoplasmic DNA from only the male gamete

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40
Q

horizontal gene transfer (p. 170)

A

the transfer of genetic information from one species into a different species

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41
Q

Cell Division Patterns (Somatic Cells / Body Cells)

A

interphase → mitosis karyokinesis → cytokinesis …. REPEAT (start with 46 end with 46)

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42
Q

Cell Division Patterns (Reproductive Cells / Germ Cells)

A

interphase → meiosis I → cytokinesis I → meiosis II → cytokinesis II (start with 46 end with 23)

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43
Q

Interphase

A

● chromosomes/DNA replicate, condense
(i.e. DNA wraps tightly around histone proteins)

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44
Q

Mitosis (PMAT)

A

● occurs in all somatic / body cells
● produces 2 genetically identical diploid nuclei

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45
Q

Cytokinesis

A

division of cytoplasm and organelles

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46
Q

Prophase

A

● asters (centriole & spindle fibre) move to the poles- forming the mitotic spindle
● nuclear membrane dissolves
● chromosomes shorten and thicken

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47
Q

Metaphase (Karyotype Stage)

A

● sister chromatids align in the middle
● spindle fibres from opposite poles attach to each sister chromatid at the kinetochore

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48
Q

Anaphase

A

● sister chromatids separate → now called chromosomes
●sister chromatids pulled to opposite poles

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49
Q

Telophase

A

● nuclear membrane appears around each new chromosome set creating two identical nuclei
●NM reappears
●spindles disappear
● cell membrane pinches in at cleavage furrow
● chromosomes “loosen” again becoming chromatin

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50
Q

What are 2 types of natural clones/copies?

A

● single cell bacteria
● identical twins (kind of)

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51
Q

What are 2 types of genetically designed clones/copies?

A

○ i.e. plants that make insulin
○ i.e. animals that make spider silk

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52
Q

Gene Cloning

A

■ plasmids with gene inserts placed into bacteria and yeast cells (factories!)
■ proteins made en masse by all the bacteria / yeast with the inserted gene
■ drugs / proteins made for human use
● Insulin is produced by bacteria & yeast (drug for diabetics)
● Insulin can produced by safflower plant seeds that have the insulin gene inserted into their genome (they are like factories)

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53
Q

Therapeutic Cloning

A

■ enucleated egg cell + somatic nucleus of organism you LOVE → grow tissue in a petri dish
■ use for transplant and / or drug tests
● expts to understand disease & test new drugs

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54
Q

Reproductive Cloning

A

■ enucleated egg cell + somatic nucleus of organism you LOVE → insert embryo in a uterus
■ grow a “full grown” clone! (sheep/Dolly, cow, goat, etc.)
○ make clones
○ make $$

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55
Q

What are some ethical issues with cloning?

A

● An increase in abortions and miscarriages.
● Deformed embryos and clones.
● Parenting a clone.
● Clones becoming self-sufficient.
● Unknown personality of the clone.
● Rights for the clone.
● Pet cloning vs. unwanted animals & exploitation of grief

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56
Q

Sexual Reproduction

A

● sexual reproduction unites two haploid (n) gametes → generating genetic diveristy
● a gonochoric species has a male organism and female organism that produce gametes
● gametes can unite via internal fertilization or external fertilization

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57
Q

Gametogenesis

A

● haploid gametes have one of each homologue
● haploid gametes therefore carry one copy of every gene (gene = allele + allele)
● fertilization creates diploid zygotes with ….
○ 2 copies of every gene (one on each homologue)

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58
Q

Interphase

A

●DNA replication
●chromosomes become sister chromatids

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59
Q

Meiosis I

A

The Reduction Phase

60
Q

Prophase I

A

● asters (centriole & spindle fibre) move to the poles- forming the mitotic spindle
● nuclear membrane dissolves
● chromosomes shorten and thicken
(sister chromatids,centromeres)
● synapsis forming tetrads
● crossing over

61
Q

Metaphase I (Random Assortment creates genetic variation)

A

● alignment in the middle
● spindle fibers from opposite poles attach at the kinetochore
● replicated homologues align in the middle (tetrads)
●random assortment (2n)

62
Q

Anaphase I

A

●replicated homologous pairs move to opposite poles

63
Q

Telophase I

A

nuclear membrane around two “piles” of chromosomes

64
Q

Cytokinesis I

A

● cytoplasm and organelles are divided
●two haploid cells with replicated chromosomes

65
Q

Prophase II

A

● asters (centriole & spindle fibre) move to the poles- forming the mitotic spindle
● nuclear membrane dissolves
● chromosomes shorten and thicken (sister chromatids,centromeres)

66
Q

Metaphase II

A

● alignment in the middle
● spindle fibres from opposite poles attach at the kinetochore

67
Q

Anaphase II

A

● sister chromatids separate

68
Q

Telophase II

A

● nuclear membrane around two “piles” of chromosomes

69
Q

Cytokinesis II

A

● cytoplasm & organelles divide
● 4 genetically unique haploid cells

70
Q

Spermatogenesis

A

Male Reproductive System
● reproductive cells (2n) are in seminiferous tubules
● reproductive cells (2n) are called spermatogonia

71
Q

Oogenesis

A

Female Reproductive System
● reproductive cells (2n) are in the ovaries
● reproductive cells (2n) are called oogonia

72
Q

What is NonDisjunction?

A

nondisjunction means a failure to separate

73
Q

Where can NonDisjunction happen in meiosis?

A

○ anaphase I- replicated homologous chromosomes / tetrads fail to separate
○ anaphase II- replicated chromosomes / sister chromatids fail to separate

74
Q

What are some causes of NonDisjunction?

A

maternal age
lifestyle

75
Q

Artificial Reproductive Technologies

A
76
Q

Gametes with Aneuploidies

A
77
Q

Dom/ rec

A

Rr

78
Q

Inc dom

A

BB(1)

79
Q

Co dom

A

I(A) I(B)

80
Q

Sex linked

A

XX or Xy (nothing on y)

81
Q

nuclein (p. 228)

A

The original name given to DNA. it was discovered in the nucleus of cells by Friedrich Miescher in 1869

82
Q

nucleotide (p. 229)

A

The repeating unit in DNA. it comprises a deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate group, and one of the four nitrogenous bases

83
Q

X-ray crystallography (p. 230)

A

A technique in which a pure substance is subjected to X-rays. X-rays bend and spread helps reveal the structure of the pure substance

84
Q

scientific model (p. 230)

A

a simplified representation of a concept. This can be tangible or conceptual

85
Q

complementary base pairing (p. 231)

A

pairing of the nitrogenous base of one strand of DNA with the nitrogenous base of another strand. adenine (A.) pairs with thymine (T), and guanine (G) pairs with cytosine ©

86
Q

point mutation (p. 234)

A

a small-scale change in the nitrogenous base sequence of a DNA. The mutation may be beneficial, harmful, or neutral (having no effect on the organism)

87
Q

chromosome mutation (p. 234)

A

an error that involves an entire chromosome or a large part of a chromosome

88
Q

spontaneous mutation (p. 236)

A

a mutation that is not caused by any outside factors. it occurs randomly

89
Q

induced mutation (p. 236)

A

a mutation that occurs because of exposure to an outside factor. Such as second-hand smoke increases the chance of developing lung cancer

90
Q

antibiotic resistant (p. 237)

A

describes strains of bacteria that are no longer susceptible to the effects of antibiotics. These are sometimes called “superbugs” and are prevalent in hospital settings

91
Q

transposon (p. 237)

A

a specific segment of DNA that can move along or between the chromosomes

92
Q

transposition (p. 237)

A

the process of moving a gene sequence from one part of the chromosome to another part of the chromosome

93
Q

microarray (p. 238)

A

a small membrane or glass slide that has been coated in a predictable and organized manner with a genomic sequence

94
Q

Human Genome Project (HGP) (p. 240)

A

a collaborative worldwide project to sequence the nitrogenous bases in human DNA

95
Q

human genome (p. 240)

A

the sequence of DNA nitrogenous bases found on the 23 sets of chromosomes in humans

96
Q

coding DNA (p. 240)

A

a region of DNA that contains a sequence of nucleotides that will be expressed; a gene

97
Q

non-coding DNA (p. 240)

A

a region of DNA that does not contain a sequence of nucleotides that will be expressed

98
Q

functional genomics (p. 241)

A

the study of the relationship between genes and their function

99
Q

model organism (p. 241)

A

an organism that can be used to study biological functions of another organism, due to its genetic similarity

100
Q

DNA bank (p. 242)

A

a database of DNA sequences; the sequences can be from plants, animals, or humans

101
Q

DNA fingerprinting (p. 243)

A

a pattern of bands on a gel that is unique to each individual

102
Q

restriction enzyme (p. 245)

A

a molecule that has the ability to cut DNA at a specific site; different restriction enzymes recognize and cut different sites

103
Q

recombinant DNA (p. 245)

A

fragments of DNA consisting of nucleotide sequences from at least two different sources

104
Q

gene therapy (p. 249)

A

the process by which defective genes in a genome are corrected with a normal copy of the gene

105
Q

target cell (p. 249)

A

one of the cells that contain the faulty gene to be corrected

106
Q

vector (p. 249)

A

any agent, such as a plasmid or a virus, capable of inserting a piece of foreign DNA into a cell

107
Q

What is Lactose tolerance?

A

Able to consume as much dairy without side effects

108
Q

What is Lactose intolerance?

A

Unable to consume dairy without side effects

109
Q

Insertion

A

(add a letter)

110
Q

Deletion

A

(subtract a letter)

111
Q

Duplication

A

(duplicate a letter)

112
Q

Invitation

A

(switch around)

113
Q

Nature vs. Nurture Debate (Triplet Study)

A

● 3 boys placed in different homes - no clue triplets
● multiyear study by child psychiatrist - examining the question of “nature vs. nurture,” - never published, and the study’s materials are being kept at Yale University.

114
Q

Nature vs. Nurture Debate (Mother Rats)

A

Those who mothers were lickers child become lickers and those who were not became non lickers

115
Q

Nature vs. Nurture Debate (FAS)

A

Is a disorder that happens when the mother drinks alcohol while pregnant.

116
Q

Nature vs. Nurture Debate (WWII testing)

A

● 3000 twin sets - 200 survived
● Eugenics is the scientifically erroneous and immoral theory of “racial improvement” and “planned breeding” – believed that they could perfect human beings through genetics and heredity

117
Q

Down syndrome

A

trisomy of chromosome 21

118
Q

Edward syndrome

A

trisomy of chromosome 18

119
Q

Klinefelter syndrome

A

two X and one Y sex chromosomes

120
Q

Turner syndrome

A

one X and no Y sex chromosome

121
Q

Patau syndrome

A

trisomy of chromosome 13

122
Q

Chargaff’s rule

A

• The amount of adenine (A.) is always equal to the amount of thymine (T).
• The amount of guanine (G) is always equal to the amount of cytosine (C).

123
Q

Genetic disorders: Huntington’s

A

Huntington’s disease when it stops parts of the brain working properly over time. It’s passed on from a person’s parents.

124
Q

Genetic disorders: Sickle cell Anemia

A

It affects the shape of red blood cells, which carry oxygen to all parts of the body.

125
Q

Genetic disorders: Colored vision

A

This means you cannot see color

126
Q

Genetic disorders: hemophilia

A

usually an inherited bleeding disorder in which the blood does not clot properly

127
Q

What are the 5 steps to Gene cloning?

A

1.Isolation of donor DNA fragment or gene.
2.Selection of suitable vector.
3.Incorporation of donor DNA fragment into the vector.
4,Transformation of recombinant vector into a suitable host cell.
5.Isolation of recombinant host cell

128
Q

Scientists and contributions: Watson and Crick

A

discovered the double-helix structure of DNA

129
Q

Scientists and contributions: Chargaff

A

found that in DNA, the ratios of adenine (A) to thymine (T) and guanine (G) to cytosine (C) are equal.

130
Q

Scientists and contributions: Gladwell

A

Canadian journalist

131
Q

Scientists and contributions: Suzuki

A

Was a gentiet in Vancouver

132
Q

Scientists and contributions: Paabo

A

Nobel Prize in Physiology & Medicine

133
Q

Scientists and contributions: Mendel

A

discovered the fundamental laws of inheritance.

134
Q

GMO: Bt corn

A

Bt corn is enhanced through biotechnology to protect against insect

135
Q

GMO: pesticide resistant crops

A

Allow no pesticides

136
Q

GMO: insulin producing bacteria

A

GMO insulin is also known as synthetic insulin, or human insulin. It is produced with genetically modified bacteria, instead of the traditional method that produces what is known as pork insulin. In this method, sometimes called natural insulin, the pancreas of a cow or pig is used to produce insulin.

137
Q

GMO: antifreeze genes in plants

A

inhibit the growth and recrystallization of ice that forms in intercellular spaces.

138
Q

3 steps to Gene therapy

A

Replacing a mutated gene that causes disease with a healthy copy of the gene
- Inactivating, or “knocking out,” a mutated gene that is functioning improperly
- Introducing a new gene into the body to help fight a disease

139
Q

Law of segregation

A

When an organism makes gametes, each gamete receives just one gene copy, which is selected randomly.

140
Q

Law of independent assortment

A

the alleles of two (or more) different genes get sorted into gametes independently of one another. In other words, the allele a gamete receives for one gene does not influence the allele received for another gene.

141
Q

IVF (process, purpose, uses)

A
  1. mature eggs are collected (retrieved) from ovaries and fertilized by sperm in a lab. Then the fertilized egg (embryo) or eggs (embryos) are transferred to a uterus.
  2. to help with fertility
  3. to help a woman become pregnant
142
Q

recombinant dna

A

scientists can easily add genes from one species into bacteria to produce a product. For example, insulin is regularly produced by means of recombinant DNA within bacteria. A human insulin gene is introduced into a plasmid, which is then introduced to a bacterial cell.

143
Q

What are gene therapy obstacles?

A

Unwanted immune system reaction.
Targeting the wrong cells. .
Infection caused by the virus. .
Possibility of causing a tumor.

144
Q

Types of DNA Banks

A

○ personal / private
○ endangered species
○ police forces / RCMP

145
Q

Why might you sequence DNA?

A

● legal issues
○ illustrate innocence or guilt
○ look for serial offenders
● paternity suits
● determine ancestry
● predict genetic disorders
● identify remains
● supermarket labels

146
Q

Day 5

A

Biology Grade 11 (8 decks)

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