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AP BIO > Unit 1: Chemistry of Life - Functional Groups, Carbs, Lipids, and Proteins > Flashcards

Unit 1: Chemistry of Life - Functional Groups, Carbs, Lipids, and Proteins Flashcards

Functional Groups, Carbs, Lipids, and Proteins

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1
Q

Hydroxyl

A

-OH

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2
Q

Carbonyl

A

C double bonded to an O on top (CO)

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3
Q

Amino

A

H-N-H

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4
Q

Carboxyl

A

C double bonded to O and single bonded to OH (COOH)

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5
Q

Phosphate

A

P double bonded to one O and three single bonds to O’s (POOOO)

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6
Q

Sulfhydryl

A

SH

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7
Q

Methyl

A

C with single bonds to H (CH3)

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8
Q

All functional groups except methyl are…

A

Polar

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9
Q

Methyl group is…

A

Nonpolar

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10
Q

How many valence electrons does Carbon have?

A

4

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11
Q

What does carbon allow for creating?

A

Large molecules, or macromolecules

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12
Q

Which elements are found in all organic matter?

A

Carbon and hydrogen

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13
Q

How many major macromolecules are there?

A

4

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14
Q

What are the 4 major macromolecules?

A

Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids

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15
Q

Function of carbohydrates

A

Used for energy and make up the cell walls of plants and prokaryotes

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16
Q

Are carbs polar or nonpolar?

A

Polar

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17
Q

What elements are carbs made up of?

A

C, H, O

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18
Q

Since carbohydrates are polar and dissolve in water, they can’t do what?

A

Go through the cell membrane without a transporter

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19
Q

Lipids contain which elements?

A

C, H, O

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20
Q

Which two groups of macromolecules contain the same elements?

A

Carbs and lipids

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21
Q

Are lipids polar or nonpolar?

A

Nonpolar (think oil doesn’t mix with water)

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22
Q

Proteins are made up of which elements?

A

C, H, O, N

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23
Q

Are proteins polar or nonpolar?

A

Polar

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24
Q

Nucleic acids are made up of which elements?

A

C, H, O, N, P

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25
Q

Are nucleic acids polar or nonpolar?

A

Polar

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26
Q

The only macromolecule that is nonpolar is…

A

Lipids (think oil)

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27
Q

Define monomer

A

Single molecule

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28
Q

Define polymer

A

2 or more molecules linked together

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29
Q

How are polymers synthesized (made)?

A

Dehydration synthesis

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30
Q

What is dehydration synthesis?

A

Building polymers with the removal of water

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31
Q

In a dehydration synthesis reaction, what is the basic formula?

A

Monomer + monomer -> polymer + H2O

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32
Q

How are monomers synthesized?

A

Hydrolysis

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33
Q

What is hydrolysis?

A

Splitting/breaking down of polymer with the addition of water

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34
Q

In a hydrolysis reaction, what’s the basic formula?

A

Polymer + H2O -> monomer + monomer

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35
Q

Hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis reactions are…

A

Opposites/switched reactions

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36
Q

Why are functional groups important?

A

Functional groups influences the way a macromolecule reacts, especially how it reacts with water (electronegative, polar, nonpolar, etc)

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37
Q

What is the monomer of a carbohydrate?

A

Monosaccharides

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38
Q

What’s the ratio of hydrogens to oxygens in carbohydrates?

A

2:1

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39
Q

When ordering carbohydrates, which direction do you go in?

A

1 is on the right middle of the ring. Then continue with 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 around clockwise

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40
Q

Example of a dehydration synthesis reaction with glucose

A

C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 -> C12H22O11 + H2O

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41
Q

What’s the common name for monosaccharides?

A

Simple sugars

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42
Q

6 carbon sugars are called…

A

Hexose sugars

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43
Q

5 carbon sugars are called…

A

Pentose suagrs

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44
Q

3 examples of hexose sugars

A

Glucose, fructose, galactose

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45
Q

2 examples of pentose sugars

A

Ribose, deoxyribose

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46
Q

In an alpha glucose molecule, the hydroxyl groups are facing…

A

BOTH downwards

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47
Q

In a beta glucose molecule, the hydroxyl groups are facing…

A

ONE upward and ONE downward

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48
Q

Trick to remember alpha and beta glucose

A

opposite of what it stands for:
alpha - above, beta - below
ACTUALLY alpha bottom, beta above and below

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49
Q

What’s differnet about alpha and beta glucose?

A

The direction the hydroxyl groups are facing

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50
Q

Disaccharides are…

A

2 monosaccharides bonded together by dehydration synthesis

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51
Q

What is the name of the covalent bond that joins a carbohydrate molecule to another group?

A

Glycosidic bond

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52
Q

A glycosidic bond is a ___ bond

A

Covalent

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53
Q

Glucose + glucose

A

Maltose + water

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54
Q

Glucose + fructose

A

Sucrose + water

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55
Q

Glucose + galactose

A

Lactose + water

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56
Q

Polysaccharides are…

A

3 or more monosaccharides bonded together by dehydration synthesis

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57
Q

3 types of polysaccharides

A

Starch, glycogen, cellulose

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58
Q

Starch monomer, linkage, shape, cell type, function, are humans able to break the bond

A

Alpha glucose, 1, 4 alpha glycosidic, branches, plant cell, provides energy by storing sugar in plants, yes humans can break bonds

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59
Q

Glycogen monomer, linkage, shape, cell type, function, are humans able to break the bond

A

Alpha glucose, 1, 4 alpha glycoside, branches, animal cell, provides energy by storing sugar in animals, yes humans can break the bonds

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60
Q

Cellulose monomer, linkage, shape, cell type, function, are humans able to break the bond

A

Beta glucose, 1, 4 beta glycosidic, arranged in compact, uniform, linear sheets, plant cell, makes up cell wall of plants, humans can’t break the bonds

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61
Q

Trick to remember which bonds humans can break

A

Humans eat starchy plants like sweet potato, glycogen stores sugar in humans - cellulose is plant cells only

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62
Q

Trick to remember which polysaccharides are beta be which are alpha

A

Animals/humans can break down = alpha

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63
Q

Why can’t humans break down cellulose?

A

Humans don’t have the enzymes to break down 1, 4 beta glycosidic linkage

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64
Q

What are the functions of carbohydrates?

A

Provide energy and used as a cell wall

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65
Q

The product of dehydration synthesis is a

A

Polymer

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66
Q

The product of hydrolysis is a

A

Monomer

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67
Q

How does the molecular formula of beta glucose compare to that of alpha glucose?

A

They’re the same

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68
Q

What’s the scientific name for starch?

A

Amylose

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69
Q

What does the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen look like in a lipid?

A

Greater than 2:1

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70
Q

Which element is more numerous in carbohydrates than it is in lipids?

A

Oxygen (Think carbs are polar, so they have more of the electronegative element)

71
Q

How many types of lipids are there?

A

3

72
Q

What are the 3 types of lipids?

A

Triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids

73
Q

What’s another name for steroids?

A

Sterols

74
Q

How many rings do sterols have?

A

4 rings (think boxing ring)

75
Q

3 examples of sterols

A

Estrogen, testosterone, cholesterol

76
Q

Glycerol is a…

A

3 carbon sugar

77
Q

Triglycerides contain a…

A

Glycerol attached to 3 fatty acids (think tri means 3)

78
Q

Saturated fats

A

No double bonds, stiff/solid at room temperature (butter)

79
Q

Unsaturated fats

A

1 or more double bonds, liquid at room temperature (olive oil)

80
Q

What’s the name of the bond that links the three fatty acids to glycerol?

A

Ester bond

81
Q

Phospholipid contain…

A

A phosphate group (head), 2 fatty acids (tails), and a glycerol backbone

82
Q

The phosphate group or head is

A

Polar (phosphate, p, polar)

83
Q

The fatty acids or tails are

A

Nonpolar

84
Q

The squiggly tail represents ____ while the straight tail represents ____

A

Unsaturated fats, Saturated fats

85
Q

Phospholipids make up the…

A

Phospholipid bilayer of the cell membrane

86
Q

Why must there be 2 layers of phospholipids in the cell membrane?

A

If there was only one layer, the nonpolar and hydrophobic tails would be facing the water, which can’t happen. That’s why you need a second inward layer with the polar head facing the water.

87
Q

Phospholipids are amphipathic, meaning

A

They contain both polar and nonpolar regions

88
Q

Functions of lipids

A

Protect internal organs, temperature regulation and insulation, make up the cell membrane, provide energy

89
Q

What element distinguishes between lipids and proteins

A

Nitrogen

90
Q

Proteins contain which elements?

A

C, H, O, N, sometimes S

91
Q

Monomer of protein

A

Amino acids

92
Q

Polymer of proteins

A

Polypeptide

93
Q

For proteins, shape determines…

A

Function

94
Q

Amino acid structure and sequences determines…

A

Protein shape

95
Q

Describe amino acid structure

A

Left, amine group
Middle, H on top of C and R variable side change on bottom of C
Right, carboxyl group

96
Q

The amine group is a

A

Base

97
Q

The carboxyl group is a

A

Acid

98
Q

A base is a proton

A

Acceptor

99
Q

An acid is a proton

A

Donor

100
Q

Trick to remember what donates and what accepts H+

A

Acid does not Accept

101
Q

The R or variable side change of an amino acid is

A

Not an element, gives each amino acid it’s unique chemical properties

102
Q

Primary structure amino acid formula

A

Amino acid + amino acid -> polypeptide + water

103
Q

Primary structure meaning

A

Sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain

104
Q

What is the significant bond in the primary structure of an amino acid?

A

Peptide bond between C and N

105
Q

In a primary structure, the order of the amino acids is coded for by…

A

DNA

106
Q

Secondary structure meaning

A

Folded patterns that forms due to hydrogen bonding of the polypeptide backbone

107
Q

The two most common types of secondary structures are

A

Alpha helix (coiled) and Beta pleated sheets (like rhombuses in a line)

108
Q

The secondary structure is caused by

A

Hydrogen boning between the H in the amino group of one amino acid and the O in the carbonyl group of another amino acid

109
Q

After the primary structure, the carboxyl group turns into a

A

Carbonyl group, as the OH come off and turn to water

110
Q

Tertiary structure meaning

A

Overall three dimensional structure or a polypeptide

111
Q

The tertiary structure is caused by…

A

R-chain interactions

112
Q

What kind of R chain interactions take place?

A
  • Hydrogen bonding between R groups
  • Covalent bonding, specifically the string disulfide bond which helps keep parts of the polypeptide together
  • Ionic bonds (attracts R groups with opposite charges)
  • Hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions create clusters
113
Q

Hydrophobic clusters are located…

A

Inside the folded polypeptide and away from water molecules on the outside

114
Q

Hydrophilic clusters are located…

A

Outside the folded polypeptide clusters and near the water molecules

115
Q

Quaternary structure of a protein definition

A

2 or more polypeptides combined

116
Q

Example of quaternary protein structure

A

Red blood cells are made up of 3 different polypeptides

117
Q

In a protein, shape or conformation determines what

A

Function

118
Q

More specifically, in a protein, what determines interactions with other molecules?

A

R groups and charges

119
Q

What are the 4 functions of a protein?

A
  1. Antibodies/antigens
  2. Receptors
  3. Muscle growth and contraction
  4. Enzymes/catalysts that speed up chemical reactions
120
Q

If DNA is changed, the

A

Protein is changed

121
Q

How many types of proteins are there?

A

2

122
Q

What are the two types of proteins?

A

Globular and fibrous

123
Q

Define globular proteins

A

Carry out chemical processes

124
Q

Think of globular proteins as the

A

Doers

125
Q

Define fibrous proteins

A

Structural proteins

126
Q

What’s a common example of globular proteins?

A

Enzymes/catalysts

127
Q

What’s a common example of fibrous proteins?

A

Cytoskeleton collagen

128
Q

Enzyme

A

Or catalyst, speeds up chemical reactions

129
Q

Substrate

A

Binds to the enzyme (what the enzyme works on)

130
Q

Active site

A

Location where the substrate binds to the enzyme

131
Q

Enzyme substrate complex

A

When the enzyme and substrate are bound

132
Q

After every use, the enzyme…

A

Is the same and doesn’t change

133
Q

Lock and key fit

A

1 substrate fits 1 enzyme and the fit matches perfectly (think triangle and triangle cutout)

134
Q

Induced fit

A

Enzyme’s active site us flexible and changes shape slightly upon substrate binding to achieve the best fit (think triangle and slightly rounded triangle cutout)

135
Q

Competitive inhibition

A

A molecule similar in shape to a substrate binds to an active site and inhibits the substrate from binding

136
Q

Allosteric inhibition

A

A molecule binds to the allosteric receptor, which is located somewhere other than the active site, causing the active site to change the substrate to not fit anymore

137
Q

What 3 factors affect enzyme activity?

A
  1. pH
  2. temperature
  3. substrate and enzyme concentration
138
Q

As temperature increases,

A

Enzyme activity increases until optimal temperature. Then activity decreases

139
Q

Denature

A

Changes shape

140
Q

Why does denaturing occur?

A

Bonds in tertiary structure breaks and the bonds in the secondary structure can break

141
Q

Why is it that a protein can refill after denaturing?

A

If the secondary and tertiary structures are broken, the protein can refill because the primary structure is still unchanged

142
Q

pH is different

A

For different enzymes

143
Q

1-6

A

Acidic

144
Q

What is pH?

A

A measure of how acidic or basic something is

145
Q

7

A

Neutral

146
Q

How much more acidic is a pH of 5 than a pH of 7?

A

100x (base 10)

147
Q

8-14

A

Basic

148
Q

As substrate concentration increases

A

Enzyme activity increases and then levels off

149
Q

Function of nucleic acids

A
  • Store and transmit our hereditary information
  • Code for production of proteins
150
Q

Elements

A

C, H, O, N, P

151
Q

Monomer for nucleic acids

A

Nucleotides

152
Q

Polymers for nucleic acids

A

Nucleic acid, DNA, or RNA

153
Q

How many parts does a nucleotide have?

A

3

154
Q

What are the 4 nitrogenous bases?

A

Adenine (A)
Thymine (T)
Cytosine (C)
Guanine (G)

154
Q

What are the parts of a nucleotide?

A
  1. Phosphate (circle phosphorus group)
  2. Pentose sugar (pentagon)
  3. Nitrogenous bases
155
Q

How does a purine look different from a pyrimidine?

A

Purines have an extra, slightly smaller pentagon attached to the hexagon base

Think shorter word, longer molecule

156
Q

Purines

A

Adenine and guanine

157
Q

Pyrimidines

A

Cytosine and thymine

158
Q

What base is different in DNA and RNA?

A

Uracil in RNA, thymine in DNA

159
Q

What sugar is different in DNA and RNA?

A

Ribose in RNA, Deoxyribose in DNA

160
Q

What is different in regards to the number of strands in DNA and RNA?

A

DNA is double stranded, RNA is single stranded

161
Q

What’s unique about DNA?

A

It is anti-parallel

162
Q

What’s common between DNA and RNA in terms of sugar?

A

They both have a sugar phosphate (pentose) backbone

163
Q

What are both DNA and RNA made up of?

A

Nucleotides

164
Q

Cytosine pairs with

A

Guanine

165
Q

Adenine pairs with

A

Thymine

166
Q

Guanine pairs with

A

Cytosine

167
Q

Thymine pairs with

A

Adenine

168
Q

How many hydrogen bonds link cytosine and guanine?

A

3

169
Q

How many hydrogen bonds link adenine and thymine?

A

2

170
Q

Which are stronger, hydrogen bonds between AT or between CG?

A

CG because there is one more hydrogen bond than in AT

171
Q

Phosphodiester bond

A

Covalent bonds that pair nucleotides together

172
Q

Central dogma for DNA

A

DNA -> RNA -> proteins
DNA codes for proteins

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