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Unit 1 Flashcards

Social cognition

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1
Q

What is social cognition?

A

refers to how we think about the social world, including our understanding of social events and interactions

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2
Q

How do Bordens and Horowitz (2008) define social cognition?

A

They define it as “the general process we use to make sense out of social events, which may or may not include other people.”

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3
Q

What does Brandbombe and Baron say about social cognition?

A

They state that social cognition involves “our attempts to understand complex issues, and why we sometimes are less than optimally rational.”

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4
Q

Can we process unlimited information?

A

no, we can only process a certain amount of information at any given time
-> when surpassed: information overload

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5
Q

What happens when the demands of the environment exceed our cognitive capacity?

A

it leads to difficulties in processing information, resulting in information overload.

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6
Q

How do we cope with information overload?

A

We develop strategies to process information quickly and efficiently, especially in situations of uncertainty.

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7
Q

What are Heuristics according to Brandbombe and Baron?

A

simple rules for making complex decisions or drawing inferences in a rapid and efficient manner

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8
Q

What can Heuristics also be considered as?

A

Shortcuts

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9
Q

What do Heuristics help us with?

A

they save us time and energy and helps us to cope with big amounts of information

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10
Q

What is an issue the usage of Heuristics can lead to?

A

it can lead to / be biased

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11
Q

What are the 4 Heuristics?

A

Representativeness Heuristic
Availability Heuristic
Anchoring and adjustment Heuristic
Status Quo Heuristic

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12
Q

What is the main part of Representativeness Heuristic?

A

Comparison with a prototype
-> the more an individual resembles a group, the more likely he/she is to belong to that group

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13
Q

How is Availability decided in Heuristics?

A

How frequent is a certain event? How easy can I recall events of this kind?

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14
Q

Why does the availability heuristic lead to errors?

A

because the ease of retrieving information from memory can make events seem more common or impactful than they really are.

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15
Q

What is Availability Heuristic influenced by?

A

Time (more events in short span)
Attention (bias - the more I like topic, the more attention I pay)
Amount of information (more info available - more likely to happen)
Emotions (linked to memory)
Self-relevant (it affects me)

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16
Q

What is the anchoring and adjustment heuristic?

A

involves setting an initial reference point (anchor) and adjusting from that point to make decisions

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17
Q

What is a metaphorical way to describe anchoring and adjustment heuristic?

A

tug-of-war

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18
Q

where is the anchoring and adjustment heuristic commonly used?

A

in assimilation new information, sales strategies and even food choices

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19
Q

What is a common issue with the anchoring and adjustment heuristic?

A

people often make inadequate adjustments based on external anchors, leading to errors in judgment

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20
Q

What is status quo heuristics?

A

It’s the belief that the current state of things is better than the alternative, even without proof

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21
Q

What is the status quo heuristic used for?

A

Marketing: I’ve always used this product
Society: traditions

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22
Q

what influences status quo heuristic?

A

time

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23
Q

What is the definition of schemas?

A

Mental sequences or frameworks built upon past experiences
-> They guide our interpretations of the world.

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24
Q

What 3 points do Schemas translate to?

A
  • What to expect
  • Comfort
  • Generalization
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25
Q

What are Schemas used for?

A
  • Organizing social information
  • Guiding our actions
  • Processing information relevant to specific contexts
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26
Q

Where are Schemas usually shared in?

A

within the same culture

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27
Q

What are 2 examples of schemas in the daily life that are often similar?

A

Supermarkets, Hospitals

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28
Q

Which 3 basic processes influences schemas on social cognition?

A

Attention
Encoding
Retrieval

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29
Q

What is attention?

A

what encounters our consciousness

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30
Q

How do schemas influence attention?

A

we notice information consistent with what we already know

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31
Q

What does noticing information consistent with what someone already knows reduce?

A

the cognitive load.

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32
Q

What does reducing the cognitive load mean?

A

doesn’t take much effort :)

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33
Q

What is Encoding?

A

how we store the information

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34
Q

How do schemas impact encoding?

A

Info consistent with my previous schemas is “stored normally”, but exceptions or inconsistencies may be stored in a different location

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35
Q

What is retrieval?

A

what we remember and how quickly we can access the memory

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36
Q

What do we remember better, congruent or incongruent info?

A

incongruent
-> because it stands out
BUT: we report more when constant with our schemas

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37
Q

How do schemas affect retrieval of information?

A

we report more when consistent with our schemas

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38
Q

How do schemas guide our thoughts in social interactions?

A

We have schemas for different situations, but the most relevant ones get activated, influencing how we perceive and behave in social interactions.

39
Q

Are schemas always activated?

A

no, depends on context and relevance

40
Q

What effects do schemas have when activated?

A

Activated schemas shape our perception, memory, and behavior, influencing how we interpret and respond to social situations

41
Q

What do Schemas want us to do?

A

tell the ‘truth’ (e.g.: which color is the pants?)

42
Q

Which role does Strength play in Schemas?

A

The stronger and better-developed a schema is, the more likely it will be activated and influence our thinking

43
Q

How does a strong schema affect our thinking and memory?

A

influences our thinking and affects our memory for social information

44
Q

What makes a schema ‘strong’?

A
  • Quick activation
  • Difficult do deactivate
45
Q

What is priming in relation to schemas?

A

A temporary increase in the accessibility of a specific schema→priming

46
Q

What is an example of priming?

A

You just talked with your friends about eating a burger. A few moments later you start to feel like eating a burger.

47
Q

What are your options in priming?

A
  1. Fulfill the schema
  2. Let it dissipate -> unprime
48
Q

What is unpriming?

A

schema is expressed somehow in behavior or thoughts
-> once schema is ‘satisfied’ it is unprimed

49
Q

What are the benefits of Persistence in Schemas?

A

help handle vast amounts of information, avoid overload, and make decisions faster

50
Q

What are the drawbacks of persistence in Schemas?

A

influence what we notice
-> affect our memories and understanding, and remain unchanged even when faced with contradicting information (perseverance effect).

51
Q

What is the perseverance effect in relation to schemas?

A

Schemas tend to remain unchanged even when faced with contradicting information.

52
Q

What might prime certain schemas?

A

Metaphors

53
Q

How can metaphors prime certain schemas?

A

Through conditioning:
- Interpretations
- Social judgements
- Behavior
e.g.: ‘feeling blue’ or ‘feeling down’

54
Q

What are the 2 types of social processing?

A

Controlled processing
Automatic processing

55
Q

What are characteristics of controlled processing?

A

systematic, logical and highly effortful manner

56
Q

What are characteristics of automatic processing?

A

fast, relatively effortless and intuitive manner

57
Q

Can we use the two types of social processing at the same time?

A

yes

58
Q

What is automatic processing based on?

A

neurological findings

59
Q

what do the neurological findings in automatic findings say about neural systems?

A

we have 2 different neural systems to process social information located in different areas

60
Q

what are the 2 different neural systems to process social information?

A

prefrontal cortex and the limbic system

61
Q

which reactions in social situations are the prefrontal cortex and the limbic system for?

A

in the amygdala for automatic reactions and prefrontal cortex for controlled ones

62
Q

According to what do people act?

A

their schemas

63
Q

When is a thought or action guided by our schemas?

A

once a schema is activated

64
Q

do we notice that we act according to our schemas?

A

no

65
Q

Are we free of error or failure?

A

no

66
Q

what leads us to make mistakes?

A

certain tendencies or biases

67
Q

What are potential sources of error?

A
  1. Optimistic bias
  2. Overconfidence bias
  3. Hindsight bias
  4. Survey research
  5. Counterfactual thinking
68
Q

What is optimistic bias?

A

the tendency to overlook risks and expect things to turn out well
-> believing you are more likely to experience positive events and less likely to experience negative ones

69
Q

What is overconfidence bias?

A

We have a greater confidence in our beliefs or judgements than is justified

70
Q

How is overconfidence bias related to level competency and knowledge?

A
  • The lower a person’s competence the higher his/hers perception of his/her own performance will be.
  • Lacking essential information leads to miscalculations (abilities, actual capacities, knowledge, skills, etc).
71
Q

What are the consequences of overconfidence bias?

A

unrealistic expectations
-> we forge a bright and golden future for ourselves

72
Q

What is planning fallacy?

A

Tendency to believe we can get more things done in a period of time than we actually can

73
Q

What is hindsight bias?

A

the tendency to believe, after learning the outcome of an event, that it was predictable or that one “knew it all along.”

74
Q

What consequences can hindsight bias have?

A
  • overestimating our own intellectual powers
  • blaming ourselves for ‘stupid mistakes’ because looking back we see how we should have handled a situation better
75
Q

How does survey research contribute to potential sources of error?

A

can be skewed by unrepresentative samples, the order of questions, response options, or the wording of questions.

76
Q

What is counterfactual thinking?

A

the mental process of imagining alternative outcomes, such as thinking “what might have been” after an event, often influencing emotions and future decisions.

77
Q

What is an example for counterfactual thinking?

A

When lower score on test than expected
-> what if I would have studied more??

78
Q

How does counterfactual thinking influence emotions?

A

can enhance or reduce emotions

79
Q

can counterfactual thinking only occur in disappointing situations?

A

no

80
Q

What do counterfactual thoughts influence?

A

our sympathy and recommendations

81
Q

How does counterfactual thinking relate to tragic events and free will?

A

When participants’ belief in free will is strengthened, they generate more counterfactual alternatives for both hypothetical and real events

82
Q

What can counterfactual thinking depending on our focus do?

A

either boost or reduce our current mood

83
Q

which focuses are there in counterfactual thinking?

A

upward counterfactuals: comparing current outcome with a more favorable one
downward counterfactuals: comparing outcome with a less favourable one

84
Q

What are two main effects in influence of affect on cognition?

A

mood-congruence
mood-dependent memory

85
Q

What is mood-congruence?

A

current moods strongly determine which information in a given situation is noticed, then entered into memory.

86
Q

What is mood-dependent memory?

A

what specific information is retrieved from memory.
-> When people experience a particular current mood, they are more likely to remember information they acquired in the past while in a similar mood.

87
Q

what can moods act as and what are they influencing?

A

act as a retrieval cue
influence how we remember information

88
Q

What is affective forecast?

A

predictions of how we would feel about an event we have not experienced.

89
Q

How are the predictions of how we would feel about an event we have not experienced often?

A

inaccurate

90
Q

How does cognition process information compared to emotional experience

A

Our cognition is based on a different way of processing information compared to actual emotional experience.

91
Q

What is cognitive flexibility?

A

the ability to adapt thinking and behavior in response to changing environments, rules, or demands
-> providing different solutions/situations for certain events
(e.g.: friend doesn’t answer to text)

92
Q

What is the opposite of determinism?

A

Free will
-> Believing that people have the power to act differently in various situations

93
Q

What is Affect in psychology?

A

positive emotion

Social Psychology (4 decks)

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