Unit 1 Flashcards
Social cognition
What is social cognition?
refers to how we think about the social world, including our understanding of social events and interactions
How do Bordens and Horowitz (2008) define social cognition?
They define it as “the general process we use to make sense out of social events, which may or may not include other people.”
What does Brandbombe and Baron say about social cognition?
They state that social cognition involves “our attempts to understand complex issues, and why we sometimes are less than optimally rational.”
Can we process unlimited information?
no, we can only process a certain amount of information at any given time
-> when surpassed: information overload
What happens when the demands of the environment exceed our cognitive capacity?
it leads to difficulties in processing information, resulting in information overload.
How do we cope with information overload?
We develop strategies to process information quickly and efficiently, especially in situations of uncertainty.
What are Heuristics according to Brandbombe and Baron?
simple rules for making complex decisions or drawing inferences in a rapid and efficient manner
What can Heuristics also be considered as?
Shortcuts
What do Heuristics help us with?
they save us time and energy and helps us to cope with big amounts of information
What is an issue the usage of Heuristics can lead to?
it can lead to / be biased
What are the 4 Heuristics?
Representativeness Heuristic
Availability Heuristic
Anchoring and adjustment Heuristic
Status Quo Heuristic
What is the main part of Representativeness Heuristic?
Comparison with a prototype
-> the more an individual resembles a group, the more likely he/she is to belong to that group
How is Availability decided in Heuristics?
How frequent is a certain event? How easy can I recall events of this kind?
Why does the availability heuristic lead to errors?
because the ease of retrieving information from memory can make events seem more common or impactful than they really are.
What is Availability Heuristic influenced by?
Time (more events in short span)
Attention (bias - the more I like topic, the more attention I pay)
Amount of information (more info available - more likely to happen)
Emotions (linked to memory)
Self-relevant (it affects me)
What is the anchoring and adjustment heuristic?
involves setting an initial reference point (anchor) and adjusting from that point to make decisions
What is a metaphorical way to describe anchoring and adjustment heuristic?
tug-of-war
where is the anchoring and adjustment heuristic commonly used?
in assimilation new information, sales strategies and even food choices
What is a common issue with the anchoring and adjustment heuristic?
people often make inadequate adjustments based on external anchors, leading to errors in judgment
What is status quo heuristics?
It’s the belief that the current state of things is better than the alternative, even without proof
What is the status quo heuristic used for?
Marketing: I’ve always used this product
Society: traditions
what influences status quo heuristic?
time
What is the definition of schemas?
Mental sequences or frameworks built upon past experiences
-> They guide our interpretations of the world.
What 3 points do Schemas translate to?
- What to expect
- Comfort
- Generalization
What are Schemas used for?
- Organizing social information
- Guiding our actions
- Processing information relevant to specific contexts
Where are Schemas usually shared in?
within the same culture
What are 2 examples of schemas in the daily life that are often similar?
Supermarkets, Hospitals
Which 3 basic processes influences schemas on social cognition?
Attention
Encoding
Retrieval
What is attention?
what encounters our consciousness
How do schemas influence attention?
we notice information consistent with what we already know
What does noticing information consistent with what someone already knows reduce?
the cognitive load.
What does reducing the cognitive load mean?
doesn’t take much effort :)
What is Encoding?
how we store the information
How do schemas impact encoding?
Info consistent with my previous schemas is “stored normally”, but exceptions or inconsistencies may be stored in a different location
What is retrieval?
what we remember and how quickly we can access the memory
What do we remember better, congruent or incongruent info?
incongruent
-> because it stands out
BUT: we report more when constant with our schemas
How do schemas affect retrieval of information?
we report more when consistent with our schemas
How do schemas guide our thoughts in social interactions?
We have schemas for different situations, but the most relevant ones get activated, influencing how we perceive and behave in social interactions.
Are schemas always activated?
no, depends on context and relevance
What effects do schemas have when activated?
Activated schemas shape our perception, memory, and behavior, influencing how we interpret and respond to social situations
What do Schemas want us to do?
tell the ‘truth’ (e.g.: which color is the pants?)
Which role does Strength play in Schemas?
The stronger and better-developed a schema is, the more likely it will be activated and influence our thinking
How does a strong schema affect our thinking and memory?
influences our thinking and affects our memory for social information
What makes a schema ‘strong’?
- Quick activation
- Difficult do deactivate
What is priming in relation to schemas?
A temporary increase in the accessibility of a specific schema→priming
What is an example of priming?
You just talked with your friends about eating a burger. A few moments later you start to feel like eating a burger.
What are your options in priming?
- Fulfill the schema
- Let it dissipate -> unprime
What is unpriming?
schema is expressed somehow in behavior or thoughts
-> once schema is ‘satisfied’ it is unprimed
What are the benefits of Persistence in Schemas?
help handle vast amounts of information, avoid overload, and make decisions faster
What are the drawbacks of persistence in Schemas?
influence what we notice
-> affect our memories and understanding, and remain unchanged even when faced with contradicting information (perseverance effect).
What is the perseverance effect in relation to schemas?
Schemas tend to remain unchanged even when faced with contradicting information.
What might prime certain schemas?
Metaphors
How can metaphors prime certain schemas?
Through conditioning:
- Interpretations
- Social judgements
- Behavior
e.g.: ‘feeling blue’ or ‘feeling down’
What are the 2 types of social processing?
Controlled processing
Automatic processing
What are characteristics of controlled processing?
systematic, logical and highly effortful manner
What are characteristics of automatic processing?
fast, relatively effortless and intuitive manner
Can we use the two types of social processing at the same time?
yes
What is automatic processing based on?
neurological findings
what do the neurological findings in automatic findings say about neural systems?
we have 2 different neural systems to process social information located in different areas
what are the 2 different neural systems to process social information?
prefrontal cortex and the limbic system
which reactions in social situations are the prefrontal cortex and the limbic system for?
in the amygdala for automatic reactions and prefrontal cortex for controlled ones
According to what do people act?
their schemas
When is a thought or action guided by our schemas?
once a schema is activated
do we notice that we act according to our schemas?
no
Are we free of error or failure?
no
what leads us to make mistakes?
certain tendencies or biases
What are potential sources of error?
- Optimistic bias
- Overconfidence bias
- Hindsight bias
- Survey research
- Counterfactual thinking
What is optimistic bias?
the tendency to overlook risks and expect things to turn out well
-> believing you are more likely to experience positive events and less likely to experience negative ones
What is overconfidence bias?
We have a greater confidence in our beliefs or judgements than is justified
How is overconfidence bias related to level competency and knowledge?
- The lower a person’s competence the higher his/hers perception of his/her own performance will be.
- Lacking essential information leads to miscalculations (abilities, actual capacities, knowledge, skills, etc).
What are the consequences of overconfidence bias?
unrealistic expectations
-> we forge a bright and golden future for ourselves
What is planning fallacy?
Tendency to believe we can get more things done in a period of time than we actually can
What is hindsight bias?
the tendency to believe, after learning the outcome of an event, that it was predictable or that one “knew it all along.”
What consequences can hindsight bias have?
- overestimating our own intellectual powers
- blaming ourselves for ‘stupid mistakes’ because looking back we see how we should have handled a situation better
How does survey research contribute to potential sources of error?
can be skewed by unrepresentative samples, the order of questions, response options, or the wording of questions.
What is counterfactual thinking?
the mental process of imagining alternative outcomes, such as thinking “what might have been” after an event, often influencing emotions and future decisions.
What is an example for counterfactual thinking?
When lower score on test than expected
-> what if I would have studied more??
How does counterfactual thinking influence emotions?
can enhance or reduce emotions
can counterfactual thinking only occur in disappointing situations?
no
What do counterfactual thoughts influence?
our sympathy and recommendations
How does counterfactual thinking relate to tragic events and free will?
When participants’ belief in free will is strengthened, they generate more counterfactual alternatives for both hypothetical and real events
What can counterfactual thinking depending on our focus do?
either boost or reduce our current mood
which focuses are there in counterfactual thinking?
upward counterfactuals: comparing current outcome with a more favorable one
downward counterfactuals: comparing outcome with a less favourable one
What are two main effects in influence of affect on cognition?
mood-congruence
mood-dependent memory
What is mood-congruence?
current moods strongly determine which information in a given situation is noticed, then entered into memory.
What is mood-dependent memory?
what specific information is retrieved from memory.
-> When people experience a particular current mood, they are more likely to remember information they acquired in the past while in a similar mood.
what can moods act as and what are they influencing?
act as a retrieval cue
influence how we remember information
What is affective forecast?
predictions of how we would feel about an event we have not experienced.
How are the predictions of how we would feel about an event we have not experienced often?
inaccurate
How does cognition process information compared to emotional experience
Our cognition is based on a different way of processing information compared to actual emotional experience.
What is cognitive flexibility?
the ability to adapt thinking and behavior in response to changing environments, rules, or demands
-> providing different solutions/situations for certain events
(e.g.: friend doesn’t answer to text)
What is the opposite of determinism?
Free will
-> Believing that people have the power to act differently in various situations
What is Affect in psychology?
positive emotion
