Understanding Grape Growing Options Flashcards
What is the aim of Conventional viticulture?
Raising production levels and reducing labour requirements.
How is Conventional viticulture achieved?
Mechanisation, agro-chemicals, irrigation, clonal selection, chemical inputs, mineral fertilisers, monoculture.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of Conventional viticulture?
Adv = quicker, low reliance on labour, high yield, consistency, uniform fruit, mechanisation, low competition in monoculture.
Dis = cost of agro-chemicals, eco-unfriendly, low consumer acceptance, hazardous, more prone to disease because fungal diseases spread quickly in monoculture.
What is the aim of Sustainable viticulture?
Promote the natural ecosystems in the vineyard, maintain biodiversity, manage waste, minimise applications of chemicals and energy use, and reduce the impact of viticulture on the wider environment.
How is Sustainable viticulture achieved?
Still permits conventional treatment but makes growers limit it through careful regulation. Agro-chemicals are the last resort.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of Sustainable viticulture?
Adv = reduce cost, consumer acceptance, eco-friendly.
Dis = agro-chemicals still used, additional requirements in cost of expertise for monitoring, no certification.
What is the aim of Organic viticulture?
Improve the soil and the range of microbes and animals. Rejects manufactured fertilisers, fungicides, herbicides and pesticides.
How is Organic viticulture achieved?
compost, cover crops, natural fertilisers, reduction of monoculture, traditional remedies such as copper sulfate.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of Organic viticulture?
Adv = health & disease resistance of vine, health of soil, elimination of synthetic chemicals (save cost), eco-friendly, high consumer acceptance, fashionable, can charge premium.
Dis = reduction in yield, cost of certification, lower consistency, build up of metal in soil (copper sulfate), much higher risk.
What is the aim of Biodynamic viticulture?
Seeks to achieve a balance between the physical and higher, non-physical realms.
How is Biodynamic viticulture achieved?
Coincide with cycle of planets, moons and stars, homeopathic remedies (preparations) used to fertilise soil, treat diseases, and ward off pests. Traditional chemicals allowed like organic.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of Biodynamic viticulture?
Adv = fashionable, high consumer acceptance, can charge premium, eco-friendly.
Dis = much more difficult to scale up - reliant on labour and skill set, metal build-up in soil, cost of certification.
What is the aim of Precision viticulture?
Producing the best quality and yield, reducing environmental impact, reducing costs on treatments.
How is Precision viticulture achieved?
Measure certain factors along a vineyard area (soil, vine vigour, topography), GPS to tailor changes in vineyard, bespoke treatment.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of Precision viticulture?
Adv = Quality and yield can be improved, consistency.
Dis = cost, skill needed, suitable for premium/super-premium or very large-scale production.
What site is idea for high-volume inexpensive wines, and give a regional example (2)
Flat, fertile site with warm, dry climate.
E.g. Central Valley (Chile)
What are things to consider when selecting a vineyard site? (6)
- Adequate labour force
- Access to water
- Topography
- Climate - is it suitable for grape variety?
- Laws and regulations
- Where is the market?
What does the structure of the soil influence? (4)
root penetration, water-drainage, nutrient-holding capacity, workability.
What is a plough pan?
An impervious layer of soil.
Define subsoiling.
Breaking down an impervious layer of soil (aka. plough pan)
How can you rectify an acidic soil (and where is a regional example)?
Lime can be spread on the soil and ploughed in.
Beaujolais (France).
What are 6 (natural) things to consider when choosing a grape variety?
- Time of budding
- Duration of annual life-cycle
- Tolerance of drought
- Resistance to disease
- Winter hardiness
- Vigour
What are 6 (stylistic and sales) things to consider when choosing a grape variety?
- Style of wine
- Yield
- Cost
- Law
- Availability
- Market demand
What is head grafting?
Cut the original variety at the trunk and graft a bud from a new variety on top.
What American rootstock is tolerant of pests?
Ramsey (root-knot nematodes)
What American rootstock is drought-tolerant?
Vitus Berlandieri
What American rootstock has a high-acidic soil tolerant?
Vitus Rupestris
What is a low-vigour American rootstock?
Vitus Riparia
What is a high-vigour American rootstock?
Vitus Rupestris
Between what age is a vine able to produce its maximum yield of fruit?
Between 10-40 years
What is a risk with ‘Old Vines’?
It is not regulated, so can mean different ages from producer, an old vine in an unsuitable location and badly managed won’t produce better fruit.
Why are older vines often cited to be better?
better balanced, more adapted to their environment, more grape concentration, bigger store of carbohydrates, survived better than other vines over time.
Define ‘Soil Health’.
The continued capacity of the soil to act a living ecosystem that sustains plants, animals and humans.
What are 3 ways to control the levels of nutrients in the soil?
- Direct application of nutrients
- Promotion of biological activity and soil structure
- Management of weeds
Give me 3 reasons why the removal of weeds is desirable.
- Compete with the vine for nutrients and water
- Bare, moist soils (uncovered) are best at absorbing heat during day and releasing it at night
- Reduces frost risk.
What are Organic fertilisers?
Derived from fresh or composted plant or animal material.
Define Green Manure.
Cover crops that are grown, mown, and turned into the soil to decompose and provide nutrients.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of organic fertilisers?
Adv = Cheap (sometimes free), high in humus, nutrition for soil organisms, available to the vine gradually.
Dis = need to be broken down into inorganic nutrients (time and labour), bulky (expensive to transport and spread).
What’s another name for inorganic fertilisers?
Synthetic fertilisers
What are inorganic/synthetic fertilisers?
They are made from minerals manufactured from the ground, or synthetic chemicals.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of inorganic/synthetic fertilisers?
Adv = they are more tailored than organic fertilisers, they are already in inorganic form so are more readily available to vines, cheaper to transport and distribute.
Dis = they don’t improve soil structure, more expensive to purchase.
What is cultivation?
A method of weed control - ploughing the soil to cut or disturb the weeds’ root system.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of cultivation?
Adv = no chemicals normally, can add minerals to fertilise and cultivate soil at same time.
Dis = Potentially burying and incorporating seeds, needs specialist equipment (trimming and cultivating between plants becomes v. difficult), can increase vine vigour.
What are herbicides?
Chemical sprays that kill weeds.
What is the difference between pre-emergence herbicides, systemic, and contact? (3)
Pre-emergence = sprayed before weeds establish. Absorbed by roots and inhibits germination.
Systemic = sprayed on established weeds and taken in by leaves. Moves up sap and kills whole weed.
Contact = sprayed on established weeds and kills green parts.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of herbicides?
Adv = cheap (labour & machinery), very effective, doesn’t damage soil structure.
Dis = potentially toxic, plants become resistant - increase amount and costs go up, can increase vine vigour.
What is animal grazing?
A method of weed control using animals to graze in the vineyard.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of animal grazing as a form of weed control?
Adv = free manure, source of food for humans, no chemicals, marketing advantage.
Dis = vines have to be trellised to a high height so they don’t get eaten, additional costs (care), susceptible to vineyard pesticides.
What are cover crops?
Plants that are specifically planted, or allowed to grow, that have a beneficial effect on the vineyard.
What are some of the uses of cover crops? (4)
- suppress weeds
- improve soil structure
- compete with the vine for nutrients (and water)
- enhance biodiversity
What are advantages and disadvantages of cover crops?
Adv = suppress weeds, improve soil structure, compete with the vine for nutrients, enhance biodiversity, reduce chemicals, good surface for machinery.
Dis = not ideal for frost, too much competition for water and micro-nutrients, needs cultivating into the ground so might destroy some soil structure, difficulty to mow.
What is mulching?
Spreading of matter (e.g. hay, straw) to suppress weed growth.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of mulching?
Adv = clean, no chemicals, reduces water evaporation from soil, source of nutrients and humus.
Dis = bulky, need a lot of it, expensive to transport, can increase vine vigour too much.
Why does a vine need water? (5)
- Photosynthesis
- Nutrient Uptake
- Temperature Regulation
- Turgidity
- Evapotranspiration
Define Evapotranspiration Rate?
The rate at which water is no longer available, either because it has been evaporated from the soil, or lost from the stomata into the atmosphere.
How can you increase the efficiency of water use in the vineyard? (6)
- Efficient irrigation systems
- Drought-tolerant grape varieties (e.g. Grenache)
- Reducing competition
- Reducing evaporation
- Increasing humus levels in the soil
- Promoting growth of vine roots deep into the soil
What are 2 potential problems with water quality?
- High in dissolved solids (can block irrigation systems)
2. High salinity (salty) - difficult for vines to take up water.
Define drip irrigation.
Narrow water pipes are laid along each row, and drippers are fitted at appropriate intervals.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of drip irrigation?
Adv = Efficient, not too mineral-rich, economic, tailored (better quality and yields), fertigation (adding fertiliser).
Dis = difficult to maintain, can clog, clean water required, cannot be used in frost protection.
Define Flood Irrigation.
Water is stored behind a sluice, and at the scheduled time released to flood the vineyard.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of flood irrigation?
Adv = cheap (to install and maintain).
Dis = only works on flat sites, wasteful, can wash surface away, can encourage nematodes (they like waterlogged conditions).
Define Channel Irrigation
Water flows down furrows dug between the vine rows.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of Channel Irrigation?
Adv = more efficient than flood.
Dis = not suitable where water supply is limited.
Define Sprinklers
Irrigation method which pumps water and showers it over the vineyard.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of sprinklers?
Adv = can be used as a method of frost protection (aspersion).
Dis = considerable pressure needed, expensive (water pressure, installation, maintenance).
Define Regulated Deficit Irrigation (RDI). When in the vine cycle is it usually used?
A system of timing and regulating the amount of irrigation, so that the vine is put under mild to moderate water stress for a specified time.
Between fruit set and veraison - limit shoot growth and encourage grape development.
Define ‘Dry Farming’.
Not using irrigation in areas where rainfall in growing season is limited.
How can you manage excessive rainfall? (3)
- Drainage systems (e.g. Terracotta pipes)
- Cover crops (provide competition to vine)
- Improve soil structure (e.g. gravel - more free-draining)
Define Canopy Management (1)
The organisation of the shoots, leaves, and fruit of the vine in order to maximise grape yield and quality.
What are the key aims of Canopy Management? (7)
- Maximise sunlight interception (minimal overlap of leaves)
- Exposed fruiting area
- Reducing shade
- Uniform microclimate (grapes ripen evenly)
- Arranged to ease mechanisation
- Promote air circulation
- Better balanced vine
What are the effects of promoting sunlight exposure in the canopy? (6)
- Increased sugar levels
- Increased tannin levels (and polymerisation - less bitterness)
- Increased colour (anthocyanin) development
- Decreased malic acid
- Increased aroma precursors & compounds levels
- Decreased methoxyprazines (gives herbaceous characters)
Define under-cropping
Yield of fruit is too low.
Define over-cropping
If the yield of fruit is too high compared to the vigour of the vine.
What is the difference between winter and summer pruning? (2)
Winter - key time when decision are made
Summer - things are amended and adjusted. If winter pruning has been done well, the summer pruning should be minimal.
What are the 5 main techniques of canopy management?
- Vine Training
- Winter Pruning
- Vine Trellising
- Plant Vigour Management
- Summer Pruning
Define ‘Vine Density’
The number of vines that are planted per hectare of vineyard.
What is cheaper to establish - a high-density or low-density vineyard, and why?
Low density - widely spaced and trellised, easier to maintain, allows mechanisation, less planting material needed.
Define Vine Training.
Refers to the shape of the permanent wood of the vine, and is split into two categories: head-training or cordon-training.
What would be reasons for high-training (vine trunk is long)?
Avoid frosts, make harvesting easier.
What would be reasons for low-training (vine trunk is short)?
Better retain heat from soil, protection from wind.
What is head training?
Vines have little permanent wood. Usually a trunk.
What is cordon training?
Vines have a trunk and one or more arms of permanent wood (called cordons)
Define Pruning
The removal of unwanted parts of the vine.
Define a spur
A short section of one-year-old wood.
Define Spur Pruning, and the advantages and disadvantages.
Spurs are cut back to 2 or 3 buds. Either distributed along a cordon (cordon-training), or around the top of the trunk (head-training).
Adv = can be mechanised, anyone can do it.
Dis = castling effect
Define a cane
A longer section of one-year-old wood (can have between 8-20 buds).
Define Replacement Cane Pruning, and the advantages and disadvantages.
Canes are laid down horizontally, and tied to a trellis for support and positioning.
Adv = needs less permanent wood
Dis = more tricky, greater labour requirements
Define a trellis
Permanent structures of posts and wires that help to support and position the vine’s shoots. Vine’s tendrils will naturally curl around the trellis wires.
What are Bush Vines and where are they commonly found?
Un-trellised, head-trained, and spur-pruned.
Hot and sunny regions, e.g. La Mancha (Spain)
What are the advantages and disadvantages of Bush Vines?
Adv = Simple & easy, inexpensive, the canopy naturally shades the fruit (removes risk of sunburn in hot areas).
Dis = not suitable for mechanisation, wet conditions would promote disease.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of trellised vineyards?
Adv = maximise light interception, increase air flow, aid mechanisation.
Dis = Expensive to establish and maintain
Define Vertical Shoot Positioning (VSP)
The vine’s shoots are trained vertically and are held into place on the trellis.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of VSP?
Adv = Suitable for mechanisation, uniform canopy (regulated air flow, same amount of sun and warmth).
Dis = not great for very vigorous vines, canopy becomes too dense and shades.
Define Guyot Training
When vertical shoot positioning (VSP) is used on replacement cane pruned vines. Single Guyot (one cane retained), Double Guyot (two canes retained).
What is the aim of a complex training system?
Invented to split the canopy to reduce shade and maximise light interception. Control vine vigour.
What are examples of horizontally-split and vertically-split complex training systems?
Horizontally = Geneva Double Curtain, Lyre
Vertically = Smart-Dyson, Scott-Henry
What is the aim of Summer Pruning? (3)
fine-tuning and getting optimal ripening, reducing chance of fungal disease, making vineyard easier to manage.
What 7 Summer Pruning activities are there?
- Disbudding
- Shoot Removal
- Shoot Positioning
- Pinching
- Shoot Trimming
- Leaf Removal
- Crop Thinning/Green Harvesting
Define Disbudding
Removal of buds to manage vine balance and yield.
Define Shoot Removal
Removing shoots (often laterals) that are infertile or poorly positioned.
Define Shoot Positioning
Tucking shoots into trellis wire. Creating a uniform canopy.
Define Pinching
Pinching the growing trip from a shoot. Focus on fruit ripening rather than vegetative growth.
Define Shoot Trimming
Cutting shoots to limit growth and reduce canopy thickness. Reduces carbohydrate competition, and provides better circulation.
Define Leaf Removal
Removing leaves to reduce shade and expose fruit.
Define Crop Thinning/Green Harvesting
The removal of bunches of grapes to increase the ripeness of those grapes left on the vine.
How do you measure ripeness?
Sugar levels (most dry wines harvested between 19’ and 25’ Brix, acidity levels, aroma and tannin ripeness.
What is used to measure sugar levels in grapes?
A refractometer
What might determine your harvesting date? (8)
Red wine (consider colour and tannin ripeness), sparkling and rose (a bit of colour, ripe flavours), acid levels, weather hazards (untimely rainfall), laws and regulations, logistics (machine availability), style
How can you improve quality of machine harvesting? (5)
- Picking out undesirable fruit by hand before machine harvest.
- Using a bow-rod shaker (gentler)
- Optical sorting device
- Add SO2 to the machine
- Rigorous sorting on arrival at winery
What are the advantages and disadvantages of machine harvesting?
Adv = Fast, able to harvest at night, cheaper in large vineyards, avoid unreliable labour problem, cheaper overall, can wait until optimal time of harvesting
Dis = can’t pick whole bunches, selective picking not possible, not suitable for steep slopes, higher risk of damaging grape, not necessarily cheaper, high capital cost
What are the advantages and disadvantages of hand harvesting?
Adv = higher element of selection in vineyard, whole bunches, steeper slopes.
Dis = Labour costs and training, more expensive for medium to large wineries, much slower, greater risk of oxidation
When is hand harvesting required? (4)
- Premium sparkling wines (whole bunch pressing)
- Carbonic or semi-carbonic maceration (e.g. Beaujolais)
- Selective Harvesting (e.g. botrytized grapes for Trockenbeernauslese in the Mosel)
- Bush vines (because un-trellised)
What are the 4 harvesting practices for making sweet wines?
- Drying grapes on the vine
- Drying grapes off the vine
- Noble rot
- Freezing grapes on the vine
What happens if a grape is left on the vine?
The grape will enter stage four of ripening - grape shrivels, water lost by grape transpiration, sugars concentrate.
For drying grapes on the vine, what conditions are needed?
Dry Autumns
What are 3 other terms for drying grapes on the vine?
- Late Harvest
- Vendanges Tardives (Alsace)
- Spatlese (Germany)
What is another method used for drying grapes ON the vine?
The cane is cut or broken off from the vine a short time before harvest. The grapes shrivel more quickly.
What are the flavours contributed to drying grapes on the vine?
Very ripe flavours, e.g. tropical fruits, and dried stone fruits
What happens when drying grapes off the vine?
Grapes are picked and THEN dried. Water evaporates - concentrates sugars, acids, and flavours.
What’s another name for drying grapes OFF the vine?
Passito
What wines are made by drying grapes off the vine? (2)
Recioto di Valpolicella, Vin Santo
What is Noble Rot, and describe the process? (5)
- Botrytis cinerea (fungus) makes a little pore in the grape skin.
- Feeds on a small amount of sugar in the grapes.
- Needs wet, humid conditions in morning, so it spreads onto neighbouring grapes.
- Sunny, dry conditions in afternoon - evaporates water through pore.
- Shrivels, grows fur, develops aromas and flavours.
What distinctive flavours do Noble Rot wines have? (5)
- Honey
- Apricot
- Citrus zest
- Ginger
- Dried fruit
What wines are made by Noble Rot? (2)
Sauternes, Tokaji azsu
What are the disadvantages of Noble Rot?
Needs several pickings by hand, expensive, volume of juice low, emits an enzyme (laccase) capable of oxidising and quite resistant to SO2, difficult to press, clarify, ferment.
What grapes are ideal for Noble Rot, and give an example?
Thin-skinned, tight bunches.
Semillon, Cabernet Franc
What is the process of Freezing Grapes on the Vine? (3)
- Healthy, ripe grapes hang on vine into Autumn and Winter months.
- Water in the grape pulp turns to ice.
- Picked and pressed - sugar content concentrated
Give two examples of wine made buy freezing grapes on the vine.
- Eiswein (Germany and Austria)
2. Icewine (Canada)
What are the risks attributed to freezing grapes on the vine?
Low yield, time, manual labour, risk of grapes becoming infected or being eaten. Premium or Super-premium.
What’s another (non-protected) method of freezing grapes on the vine, and explain it.
Cyroextraction - picking late-harvest grapes and freezing them at a winery.
