UK Politics - Pressure groups

Question 1

Functions of pressure groups

Answer 1

• Influence policy making and decisions, and this can be short term and precise such as passing or amending a law, but it could be broader such as getting their concerns on the political agenda.
• Get issues on the political agenda, achieve long term objectives such as protecting the environment and minority rights.
• Tactics - Direct action, discreet lobbying - some use high profile methods whereas others use low-key operations.

How they are different to political parties:
- Do not seek to run or hold political office, but rather influence those elected and other institutions of government such as government agencies.

Question 2

The opposition pressure groups face

Answer 2

• The opposition - Sometimes there are pressure groups on both sides of an issue, such as those who support gay marriage and those who do not; this is direct opposition. Indirect opposition is when pressure groups have to compete for the same resources e.g. no one opposes resources for cancer research, but other healthcare groups such as mental health charities are seeking government funding and priority.

6) What opportunities for political participation and representation do pressure groups offer?
- Supporters can give money, donate time to campaigning and get actively involved.

7)How do pressure groups complement the representative function of political parties?
- Many of the causes groups promote are not party political but cross party, such as animal welfare, which has support from left, right and centre UK politicians.

8)What do pressure groups ultimately seek to do?
- Influence and change the policies and priorities of those with political power, which can be in Westminster, a devolved assembly or local town hall.

Question 3

Types of pressure groups

Answer 3

Two categories of pressure groups:
- Their status and how they relate to the political establishment - either insider or outsider groups
- The purpose of their campaigning - are they primarily defending the interests of their members (interest groups) or are they advocating a specific cause or interest that does not directly benefit their members or supporters (promotional groups)

Political agenda - The issues that are the subject of decisions making and debate by those with political power, and the agenda varies based on time and circumstance, as well as the party in power; pressure groups seek to ensure their policy area is high up on the agenda and shaped according to their views

Insider groups - Pressure groups that have close ties and contacts with the government, and often represent either powerful, well-resourced groups such as those associated with business or industry, or offer specialist knowledge and insights that can be useful when governments are drawing up legislation

Outsider groups - Pressure groups that lack strong established links with the government and they often represent more marginalised or radical policy agendas and frequently use direct action to publicise their aims

Interest groups - Pressure groups (sectional groups) that exist primarily to depend and advance the specific interest of their members e.g. trade unions and business groups, and they might be defined as more selfish in their aims, but would justify this stance as being in the national interest

Promotional groups - Pressure groups that are sometimes termed causal groups and set out to achieve a specific set of aims that are not in the direct interest of their members, which can include human rights or nuclear disarmament - viewed as more selfless in their objectives, often based on ethics and principles

Question 4

Similarities and differences between pressure groups and political parties

Answer 4

Similarities:
- Aim to make political changes
- Both have leaders and members who have similar goals

Differences:
- Pressure groups aim to influence the government, whereas parties want to form government
- More pressure groups than parties
- Pressure groups are divisive, parties are inclusive
- Parties are held to account, PGs are not
- PGs can focus on single issues, parties cannot to win votes
- PGs members have similar views on a singular cause, but may have different political opinions - political party members tend to be very similar politically

Question 5

What are single issue parties?

Answer 5

• Green party and UK Independence Party are known for their policies on specific issues; Green is environment, UKIP is Brexit - they have full manifestos but they are known for their issues, and they have created influence such as the Brexit referendum and changes to environmental policy
• Do not expect to win - apply pressure, demonstrate public support (UK Cannabis Law Reform) and aim to get their issue known and give the opportunity for protest voting
• They are a blurred line between pressure groups and political parties

Question 6

What are social movements?

Answer 6

• Social movements give birth to pressure groups - they inspire specificity by explaining the broad e.g. feminism has led to pressure groups regarding reproductive rights, equal pay, maternity leave and sexual harassment
  PGs are formal organisations with leaders, but social movements are larger, looser networks who support broadly similar goals, whereas PGs have specific goals - feminism is a social movement, not a pressure group
• Social movements often have radical aims and feel they cannot achieve their aims inside politics

Methods:
- As attitudes change, more formal organisations will adopt their aims
- The Labour Movement - during the industrial revolution, many people moved to urban areas, and the growing working class shared an identity and a broad set of aims, and eventually this evolved into the Labour party and trade unions
- Started with direct action, changes to formal organisations

Examples:
- The Environmental Movement - an idea and a concept people agree with, increased education, people conducted direct action to raise awareness, and others changed their lifestyles in response to nuclear weaponry, and this gave birth to pressure groups such as GreenPeace and parties such as the Green Party (informal and widespread becomes formal and specific)
Left -
- Peace movement, Labour movement, gay rights, civil rights, feminism, environmental
Right -
- The Rural Movement - People’s Fuel Lobby in which truck drivers and farmers blocked fuel deliveries to protest increasing prices
Countryside Alliance - led a march in London to oppose a ban on fox hunting and raise other rural issues

Question 7

The main functions of pressure groups

Answer 7

1) Representation - functional representation; they represent the needs and concerns of specific sections of society, rather than location areas (territorial representation is MPs)
- Ensure all different interest and views are considered, and helps give minorities are voice to prevent tyranny of the majority as they otherwise lack a voice
2) Participation - provides a means of participation in between infrequent elections and for many people they offer a more direct and attractive alternative to political parties
3) Education - make the public more aware of important political issues that they may not otherwise by exposed to; and make the government better through providing evidence and use expertise to improve legislation
- Important role in policy formation, as the pressure groups often implement the reforms, and the government often relies on pressure groups and so they are used as consultation to develop policies
4) Scrutiny and accountability - help to hold representatives accountable as they have the resources to constantly hold them to account over policies

Question 8

Insider groups - types of subgroups

Answer 8

1) Core insiders - These groups, such as the NFU, have a long standing bilateral relationship with policy makers over a broad range of issues
2) Specialist insiders - These groups have insider status but only within a narrow and specific area in which their specialist knowledge is required - for example, British Meat and Poultry Federation is only routinely consulted on issues specific to that sector of farming
3) Peripheral insiders - Insider status but are rarely needed by government due to the nature of their interest/cause - the Stillbirth and Neonatal Death Society (SANDS) managed to get the definition of stillbirth lowered from 28 weeks to 24 weeks in the Stillbirth Definition Act 1992 and this was clearly a specialised area; the government does not routinely consult them on wider children’s health issues
4) Prisoner groups - These groups find it almost impossible to break away from insider status either because of their reliance on government funding or because they are a public body - Historic England, which is government funded through the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport; one of their main aims is to promote the conservation and preservation of historic buildings and sites, but its lack of independence from the state could make it harder for it to resist policy generated in other parts of government, such as major transport projects like HS2 that impact the landscape and historic buildings

Question 9

The influence of insider groups

Answer 9

• They have more power than outsider groups - National Farmers Union and the British Medical Association have privileged access to government, and they have traditionally maintained close relationships with government departments, civil servants and individual ministers.
• Until Brexit, the NFU had a particularly important role in Brussels as many details concerning agricultural policy such as farm subsidies were made at a European level. With the advent of Brexit, the NFU were able to campaign for short term seasonal work visas so that fruit and vegetable growers could continue to hire seasonal labour from Eastern Europe, vital to the grower’s livelihoods
• The status of pressure groups can vary between outsider and insider, which depends on the government in power and the issue at stake.
• Before 1997, under Labour governments, trade unions as sectional interest groups were often treated as insider groups, and they carried considerable weight in policy formation. It reflected both the formation and history of the Labour Party, but also the basis of much of Labour’s core working-class support - it was also, and still is, the case that certain trade unions provide a large amount of Labour’s funding. In 2019, Unite donated over £4 million to the Labour party nationally.

Question 10

The status of trade unions as insider groups

Answer 10

• Tony Blair’s New Labour project was keen to distance itself from such ties, and Corbyn’s leadership reinstated those close relationships, especially as Unite’s Leader, Len McCluskey, was a Corbynite.
• Labour’s 2019 manifesto promised to repeal anti-trade union legislation including the Conservative’s undemocratic Trade Union Act (2016) - powerful pressure group influencing a party, but as Labour lost this relationship did not translate into policy - trade unions have not enjoyed the same insider status under the Conservatives.
• Close ties - Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty for Animals (RSPCA) enjoys close ties with parliament through the involvement with All-Party Parliamentary Groups (APGs) - they have helped with funding of a cross party group, such as giving £16,500 in 2017 to the APG for Animal Welfare and in return, these groups raise issues and promote causes that reflect wider aims - in 2019, they provided oral evidence to an enquiry on abbatoir provision in the UK, and went on to draft a report with a set of key recommendations or the Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs to review and the group also wrote a letter to the Chinese Ambassador about the banning of the dog meat trade.

Question 11

Big businesses and insider groups

Answer 11

• Includes organisations such as the Confederation of British Industry and British Finance (a merger of several banking associations in 2017) - following the 2008 banking crisis, the UK government offered support including loans and some temporary renationalisation of £850 billion.
• This support was lobbied for by the BBA and other industry groups but reflected the vital national importance of restoring confidence in the banking sector and minimising wider damage to the economy - while this partly reflects the power and influence of the banking and business lobby and its insider status, the government in reality had little choice but to give the bailout, and the complete collapse of major banks would have caused economic havoc

Question 12

Advantages of insider groups

Answer 12

1) Proximity - They have good channels of communication with the government and Whitehall departments, and this can often enable informal lobbying before draft legislation is drawn up to ensure their views are incorporated
2) Resources - Well resourced and funded, so hire professional lobbyists and sponsor relevant APGs
3) Government inquiries - Often invited to give evidence to select committees or PBC - 2013, the independent health pressure group the King’s Fund, gave evidence to the Health Select Committee inquiry into emergency services
4) Historic ties to political parties - Certain trade unions have close historical and institutional ties to major political parties, and can be important donors
5) Relations - Public consultation processes can involve evaluating large amounts of specific information and often the detailed technical information needed for effective laws and regulations lies with trade associations, trade unions and professional bodies rather than Whitehall, giving them direct influence over legislation

Question 13

Disadvantages of insider groups position

Answer 13

1) Proximity to government - This advantage can equally create issues - being too cosy with government can lead to policy entrapment and an unwillingness to criticise or speak out against the political establishment - diminish independence and freedom of action
2) Resources - Superior resources nd a well oiled PR machine does not guarantee success - UK PGs cannot air political ads and are limited electorally; US PGs are not
3) Government inquiries - Not just insider groups are called to give evidence to government inquiries - Cladding Action Group in 2020 which was set up by affected properties is an outsider group, but they still gave select committee evidence for the Grenfell Tower fire tragedy on tower cladding
4) Historic ties to political parties - When a party is out of office, pressure groups associated with it are left outside the corridors of power and most groups prefer to keep parties at arm’s length so as to maintain good terms with a range of political groups
5) Relations - PGs and their members are often those who are most directly affected by any changes in the law, and they should not be playing a major role in writing the rules in the first place by influencing the initial consultation and drafting stages of parliamentary bills - pressure groups have a policy ‘axe to grind’

Question 14

Insider Group case study - The National Trust

Answer 14

• Largest conservation charity in Europe founded in 1895, with a membership of over 5 million and owns over 600,000 acres of land in Britain

Key aims and objectives:
- Preservation through ownership of the nation’s countryside (beautiful, iconic and vulnerable and threatened historica properties)
- Preserving those buildings and landscapes forever (For ever for everyone)
- Promoting biodiversity / nature conservation e.g. reintroducing hedgerows and wildflower meadows
- Lobbying the government on issues such as preserving the green belt, climate change, spending on the arts and culture etc

Characteristics:
- In many ways, the NT is a typical insider group - long established, membership is disproportionately white and middle class, formal organisational structure and some senior officials are drawn from the top ranks of the civil service or other public bodies - Dame Helen Ghosh had previously been a senior civil servant in the Home Office was a former director general
- Ties with political establishment - Acts of Parliament from 1907; the Trust is allowed to declare its land inalienable, and so it can never be built upon or purchased without specific parliamentary approval - it also sometimes receives government grants for specific projects, such as the National Heritage Memorial Fund, and is routinely consulted on arts and cultural issues
- Does speak against government policies it sees as detrimental to its interests / objectives - in 2011, it took a strong government stance against government proposed changes to land use planning in England, arguing changes to the planning system would make it easier to build on greenfield sites, was rushed through parliament and represented a serious threat to the countryside
- Petition signed by thousands led to the government modifying aspects of its national planning policy to accommodate some of the Trust’s fears
- Influenced by other pressure groups - after the BLM protests it accelerated research into the links between some of its historic properties and the slave trade with the pledge to inform visitors about these links
- The National Trust is also an example of a cheque book membership group - many of its paid members join mainly for the services it offers, such as free parking at coastal sites and free admission to its properties - relatively few take an active part in its campaigning and lobbying work, but it is assumed all support this work albeit passively

Question 15

Categorising pressure groups - aims

Answer 15

Sectional and cause groups:
- National Union of Teachers, Greenpeace, BMA, Oxfam, Child Poverty Action Group
- Classification of groups based on aim
- Sectional - protect the interests of the members, and so membership is normally exclusive with a criteria for qualifying
- Cause - promote issues and policies that do not exclusively benefit the group’s members and membership is open
- Sectional - NUT (only trainee teachers), BMA, confederation of British INdustry, National Farmers Union
- Cause - Child Poverty Action Group - issue of child poverty, Oxfam

Issues with this -
- Some groups fit in both categories - BMA campaigns on health issues (cause) but also for the rights of doctors / medical staff (sectional) and the NUT which focuses on teachers and educational policy

Question 16

Insider v Outsider groups

Answer 16

• Insiders - work with government regularly and often use parliamentary procedures and work directly with MPs in select committees etc
• Outsiders - do not work with government or choose not too, and instead focus on public opinion influence to influence policy making on the outside through capturing media attention
  Royal Society for the Protection of Birds - insider group which works with gov.
• GreenPeace - Outside - similar aims but very different methods e.g. direct action

Problems -
- Child Poverty Action Group is both inside and outside, as the government can work with them but oppose their suggestions and so they vary between the two categories - Labour unions would also tend to be insider under Labour and outsiders under Conservatives
- Also, with the growth of social media, many groups can participate inside parliamentary procedures and can get themselves on consultation lists
- Distinction can often become blurred as outsider and insider groups can use a range of tactics that intersect - BMA is a core insider group, but also used strikes - they used insider methods until they no longer worked, and then used outsider methods to try and get their point across (failed with gov, turned to public) and so the distinction is not always true

Question 17

Outsider pressure groups - types

Answer 17

Potential Insider:
- These groups, despite being currently outsiders, seek to be insiders but lack the experience and connections to achieve this - insider status can sometimes be achieved to an extent by a successful but usually peaceful high-profile campaign - Gurkha Justice Campaign spent 4 years lobbying the Blair and Brown governments to give equal rights to all Gurkhas to settle permanently in the UK, and when backed by Joanna Lumley in 2008, the government was convinced after it gained a more high profile status and they had their demands met.

Outsiders by necessity:
- This represents groups forced to operate outside the government either due to the nature of their tactics or their cause - violent actions and law breaking make it difficult for these groups to have any realistic consultation with the government which leads to the impression illegality yields positive results - more extreme groups are treated with the ‘no negotiating with terrorists) approach of the government. Some aims may also be seen as too far outside current political mainstream for policy-makers to take them seriously, such as the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament which has objectives including stopping the costly replacement of the Trident nuclear submarine.

Outsiders by choice:
- Those who campaign for civil liberties such as Amnesty International may choose to deliberately stay outside of government and establishment circles and this is to retain its independence and ability to critique policies and avoid a cosy relationship with government that could jeopardise their neutrality and objectivity.

Question 18

Examples of outsider pressure groups

Answer 18

Just Stop Oil
- Feb 2022
- For the British government to commit to halting new fossil duel licensing and production
- Oil terminal disruptions across South England in April 2022
- Blocking roads
- Vandalism
- Just Stop Oil protesters block road near the Level, Brighton | The Argus

Plane Stupid
- 2005
- Wanting to end airport expansion for more ‘unnecessary and unsustainable’ flights
- Occupied a taxiway at London Stansted in December 2008
- Week long protest camp at London Heathrow in August 2007
- Plane Stupid climate change activists block Heathrow runway in protest at airport expansion | The Independent

Fathers 4 Justice:
- 2001
- Gain public and parliamentary support for changes in UK legislation on fathers’ rights
- Climbing public buildings, bridges, and monuments, dressed as superheroes
- Staged a naked protest inside the Oxford Street branch of Marks and Spencer

Question 19

Examples of outsider pressure groups cont.

Answer 19

Animal Liberation Front-
- 1976
- International, leaderless, decentralised political and social resistance movement that engages in and promotes non-violent direct action in protest against incidents of animal cruelty.
- August 2016 The ALF took credit for another arson fire that burned down the residency of a farmer in County Antrim, Northern Ireland. This came after the farmer had been convicted twice of lack of care to his animals, resulting in dozens of farm animals starving to death in horrific conditions.

The Howard League:
- 1866
- Less crime in communities
- Safer communities
- Less people in prison
- Reduction in child arrests
- Books for prisoners
- Reduction in criminal courts charge
- Legal work
- Community Awards

Stonewall:
- 1989
- Freedom and equality for the LGBTQ+ community
- Change public attitude and policy worldwide
- Provide a voice for LGBTQ+ people
- Stonewall riots inspired this charity
- Commentary on public policy such as Scotland’s Gender Recognition Bill
- Repeal of LGBT military ban
- Same-sex marriage allowed
- Education for All programme
- Award Nomination protests in regards to transgender individuals

Amnesty International:
- 1961
- Protection of -
> Women’s, children’s, minorities’ and indigenous rights
> Ending torture
> Abolition of the death penalty
> Rights of refugees
> Rights of prisoners of conscience
> Protection of human dignity
> Fair trial, legal abortion, protect children
> Public events
> Fundraising events
> Multimedia outreach

Question 20

Advantages of outsider pressure groups

Answer 20

1) Media - High profile and sometimes illegal protests make the headlines - these can both raise publicity an promote awareness of a group’s cause

2) Direct Action - Action such as striking or closing down airports can result in fines of imprisonment, and this shows commitment to a cause

3) Links to government - These groups have the freedom to act and take policy stances without being constrained by close ties to government and its institutions

4) Developing insider status - Some will achieve it in due course, either because of changes to a shift in public attitudes e.g. LGBTQ+ rights or through a change of government

Question 21

Disadvantages of outsider pressure groups

Answer 21

1) Media - Making the headlines may not equal public support - too much disruption can lead to negative publicity and put off potential supporters

2) Direct Action - Those who face prosecution for their protests are easily labelled as fanatics or extremists and this may do more harm than good for a group

3) Links to government - The type of close ties and regular consultation enjoyed by insider groups can often lead to significant influence in policy making and sometimes this can take the form of a critical friend

4) Developing insider status - Many outsider groups never achieve insider status - in addition, some outsiders are by choice

Question 22

Outsider pressure groups - Extinction Rebellion

Answer 22

• High profile outsider group - a holacratic pressure group
• Mass demonstrations such as blocking roads and bridges
• Want the truth about climate change from the government, want the government to act now to solve issues in the environment, and the government should listen to a Citizen’s Assembly on climate change matters
• It has raised the profile of climate change and the notion of an emergency and has been campaigning against the background of increasingly supportive public opinion, stronger scientific evidence and a growing willingness by all politicians to engage seriously with environmental issues
• However, they are often faced with protest against their choice of disruptive demonstration

Question 23

Measuring the success of pressure groups

Answer 23

• The criteria of success vary from group to group and issue to issue. In some cases, the criteria are straightforward, as the aim is clear and specific, such as saving a local children’s centre from closure or securing NHS availability of a new cancer drug. In other situations success can be getting an issue moved up and kept on the ‘agenda radar’ of policy makers. This is the aim, for example, of many environmental or anti-racism groups.
• There is no automatic answer to the question of which tactics are most likely to succeed. Similar to the categorisation of pressure groups, there is a high degree of flexibility. Circumstances and context are also crucial

Question 24

Key themes in the success of pressure groups

Answer 24

1) Insider groups are more likely to succeed than outsider groups. A low profile approach of lobbying and meetings with ministers and officials can often bring results without the need for public campaigning.
2) Campaigns and aims which link with the government’s own political priorities and manifesto pledges are more likely to bring success. For example Blair’s government was keen on tackling child poverty to pressure groups focussing on this were able to exercise more influence.
3) A hostile political or cultural atmosphere is much less likely to gain traction. For example pro-hunting groups were largely excluded from access and influence during the 1997-2010 Labour governments, and a vote to repeal the hunting ban was dropped from the conservative manifesto in 2019.
4) Groups that can mobilise large numbers of supporters or a high percentage of the powerful sector they represent can have a higher degree of success. Celebrity endorsements, publicity stunts, collaboration with other groups and more financial resources also play a role.

Question 25

Factors in the success of pressure groups - Achievability of aims

Answer 25

Groups that are too countercultural or extreme are unlikely to get far. Those that have clear, achievable and, ideally popular aims get a lot further.
- In 2000, protests against raising fuel duty succeeded in getting the government to drop the plans - although policy u-turns cost the government £2 billion in revenue there was considerable public support for the campaign and it was also a narrow and specific campaign target.

Question 26

Factors in the success of pressure groups - Insider status

Answer 26

Close links with decision-makers often enable success to occur at an early stage of policy or decision making. Often, key groups are consulted in advance of bills or the formulation of new regulations in order to deflect and potential criticism from such groups later on.
- The announcement in the 2019 Queen’s Speech of a Police Protections and Powers Bill and of the establishment of a Police Covenant was in part due to prior lobbying by the Police Federation. The chair commented that it is positive and reassuring the government listened to them and the prime minister has followed his commitment to crime and law policy.

Question 27

Factors involved in the success of pressure groups - In tune with policy and in tune with the people

Answer 27

In tune with government policy and ideology -
- Groups advocating causes already shared by the government stand a much greater chance of positive policy outcomes.
- 1997 Labour government was generally more positive about gay rights and so repealed legislation that prevented the promotion of homosexuality in schools (Section 28) and introduced civil partnerships for same-sex couples

In tune with public opinion -
- Tapping into the public mood at any given time is also an ingredient for potential success.
- Governments of all political complexions are keen to be seen as in touch and responsive to public opinion.
- Human resources are vital to the impact of pressure groups - PGs concerning elderly people are more likely to have an electoral impact and so the government listens to their aims more.
- In 1996, following the tragic shooting in Dunblane, Scotland, when Thomas Hamilton killed a teacher and 15 children with a legally held handgun causing huge public outcry - Snowdrop Campaign was formed to put pressure on politicians to change the law and ban private ownership; Firearms Amendment Act 1997

Question 28

Factors affecting pressure group success - Large membership

Answer 28

Having large membership not only boosts financial resources, but also enables the group to claim it represents large numbers of voters, which an elected government may not wish to alienate.
- The National Trust and the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds both have large memberships and it could also be argued that their members are disproportionately middle class and educated and so more confidently engage with politicians.
- COPA and COGECA - represent around 30 million farmers across the EU, successfully lobbied and collectively represent 76% of farming GDP

Question 29

Factors affecting pressure group success - Financial resources

Answer 29

• Wealthy pressure groups are able to run national publicity campaigns, and on occasion to employ professional lobbyists to commission research to support their arguments. Wealthy groups can also employ paid professionals to aid specific areas of their work.
• This could include IT specialists such as web designers or expats in communication. Far more options such as lobbyists and more methods such as located closer to access points. Hard to ignore the influence of big business. However, if their opponent is equally resourced, they may still struggle to get their aims met.
• Professional lobbying firms can be adept at shifting the debate on to the group’s strong points - for example, the Campaign for High Speed Rail hired Westbourne Communication to shift the debate to the economic benefits of the project for the North of England and away from the environmental impact of HS2.
• Trade Union Congress v Confederation of British Industry - equal power and influence but their aims often clash

Question 30

Factors affecting pressure groups success - celebrity endorsement and media support

Answer 30

Celebrity endorsement -
- Support from celebrities can both add publicity and lend a degree of legitimacy to campaigns.
- In 2020, throughout COVID-19, Marcus Rashford led a successful campaign to secure a free school meal vouchers for children in low income families which drew widespread support and forced the government into two policy U-turns.

Media support -
- The media can help a pressure group’s campaign by raising its profile among the general public and shining a light on its most positive aspects. Note that there is an important difference between media support and media attention - the media can also bring negative publicity to a group, such as highlighting its association with violent or threatening action, or apparent hypocrisy by leading figures
- Following an attempt by the home secretary to ban sending books to prisoners in English jails a campaign was started to overrule this. Howard League for Penal Reform and with support from the media and authors, including Philip Pullman - campaign was successful and original ruling overturned by the High Court in 2014

Question 31

Factors affecting pressure group success - Legal challenges

Answer 31

Depending on the situation, pressure groups may well use the courts to secure a change of policy. This is usually to reverse a policy they see as harmful or unwelcome.
- 2019 - Joint Council for the Welfare Immigrants brought and won a case against the UK government to end the right to rent scheme which required landlords to check the immigration status of tenants from 2016. The case was also supported by other pressure groups with different perspectives, with the Residential Landlords Association arguing the policy had turned landlords into unwilling and untrained border police

Question 32

Factors in pressure group failure

Answer 32

1) Objectives are too extreme or unworkable in the current political climate such as anti-capitalist groups like Occupy
2) Lack of resources - groups that do not have the resources to professionally present their case
3) Association with violence and disorder - might generate headlines but is counterproductive
4) Links to government - outsider status means they cannot influence policy effectively
5) A hostile political climate - Stop the War coalition organised against the Iraq invasion the Blair government enjoyed a huge Commons majority and Conservative support and Blair was committed
6) Strong countervailing forces - many groups have strong opposition from other pressure groups - Coalition for Marriage vs Stonewall

Question 33

Elitism and pluralism

Answer 33

ELITISM: Only those who wield disproportionate influence are able to make an impact - pressure group impact is reserved for the well funded pressure groups

PLURALISM: All groups have equal influence regardless of funding and resources and influence - level playing field with no specific advantages and they are more representative of common opinion.

Hyperpluralism - too many pressure groups resisting government and they cannot do anything as a result

Question 34

Features of elitism promoted by pressure groups

Answer 34

1) Many pressure groups are themselves undemocratic in structure and dominated by their own internal elites. This accusation has been levelled at the environmental group Greenpeace in the past.
2) Many of the most marginalised and poorly resourced people in society, such as the homeless and the unemployed, lack any group with influence to represent their views.
3) Power is inherently distributed unequally in society and politics, and this is reflected in pressure groups.
4) Some corporate interests such as the banks, big business and billionaires - and especially those who make political donations - have become too big to confront.
5) Powerful and well resource groups often ‘have the ear’ of government and use their Insider status to influence and manipulate legislation and regulations, often before they are publicly revealed or debated.
6) Groups that are already powerful and dominant often claim a monopoly of knowledge and competence in their chosen field and can fund research to back up their claims. For example, discussions about legal reforms, such as reducing the distinction between barristers and solicitors, rely heavily on legal opinion and advice provided by the same groups the government might wish to reform and reduce in terms of power. The views and concerns of the ordinary public, the uses of the legal system, are unlikely to get the same hearing from the government.

Question 35

Pluralism promoted by pressure groups

Answer 35

1) The advent of social media in particular has enabled groups with limited financial resources to communicate their message to large numbers.
2) Many pressure groups, especially the newer ones such as Extinction Rebellion and Black Lives Matter, are largely non-hierarchical and loosely structured.
3) In a democracy, no one group or section of society has a monopoly on power. Free speech and expression enable a multiplicity of views to coexist.
4) Governments are naturally keen not to be out of touch with voters. In a democracy, votes still matter, and governments are wary of being too close to a narrow clique that could be seen to be hostile to a large body of public opinion. This can be seen, for example, with select committees often taking evidence from a wide range of groups and viewpoints in their enquiries. Recent government initiatives on climate change could be seen as ‘taking on’ the powerful vested industry groups who might otherwise prefer to go on using fossil fuels.
5) Nearly all groups in modern British society have pressure groups that represent them.
6) There are checks in place that can limit the power of even the most entrenched and traditionally powerful interest groups. The British Medical Association, for example, resorted to strike action in response to government reforms to the health service and especially doctor’s pay and conditions. Even parts of the legal profession went on strike in 2015 in protest at cuts to the legal aid budget. Such tactics suggest that traditional lobbying by Insider groups, such as the Criminal Bar Association, had clearly failed. Arguably, no group is too powerful in a democracy to be untouchable.

Question 36

Pressure groups help democracy because ->

Answer 36

1) Pressure groups contribute positively to public awareness and knowledge of specific issues. They promote political education and debate and enable voters, as well as policy makers, to be better informed.
2) Pressure groups perform a key representative function. Virtually every group and viewpoint imaginable is represented by a pressure group in some way. Many of these issues, such as mental health or human rights, can cut across traditional party political divides. Arguably, as many groups have memberships larger than political parties, they better represent voters.
3) Pressure groups provide specialist input that enables laws and regulations to be better and fairer.
4) Pressure groups increasingly have structures that are internally democratic. This is particularly true for trade unions which, following reforms in the 1980s, have regulated secret ballots for internal positions and for when they want to take industrial action. The many pressure groups that are also registered charities are subject to regulation by the Charity Commission, which can investigate financial irregularities or conflicts of interest.
5) Pressure groups provide popular forums for campaigning and active political participation. Groups including the Stop the War coalition took part in mass rallies in 2003 against the Iraq War. Around 1 million people attended the main London march, the largest ever political demonstration in the UK.
6) All pressure groups make use of a wide range of democratic bodies to make their case. This includes Westminster but also often local councils and the devolved assemblies. It could also be argued that they bring accountability to some of the less democratic parts of the state, such as unelected quangos and government departments. Many decisions are made by civil servants and not directly by Ministers.
7) Pressure groups enable representation between elections through their lobbying and campaign work and ensure issues continue to be debated outside election campaigns. They also allow the voices of more marginalised groups in society to be heard, including prisoners and asylum-seekers.
8) Large crowds attended numerous Black Lives Matter protests across the UK in the summer of 2020.

Question 37

Pressure groups hinder democracy ->

Answer 37

1) Unlike elected representatives, e.g. MPs and local councillors, pressure groups have no direct democratic mandate, and thus could be said to lack political legitimacy.
2) Groups consulted on the new laws and regulations tend to argue only their own case and offer proposals that benefit their vested interests.
3) Large-scale participation in pressure group campaigns and protests is the exception not the norm. A large proportion of members, especially in big organisations, are passive. Many are ‘chequebook members’ who joined for the benefits and not out of principled conviction. For many, participation might be limited to little more than signing a petition electronically or sending a pre-formatted email to their MP.
4) Pressure groups certainly make use of as wide a range of access points as possible, but this does not automatically mean they benefit democracy. Arguably, they are no more democratically representative than some of the unelected officials e,g civil servants who may seek to persuade.
5) Information put out into the public arena by pressure groups is inevitably one-sided and selective. Groups highlight the positive aspects of their stance and either refute or ignore information from other viewpoints. This is particularly true of highly divisive and emotional issues, such as immigration and abortion. - selective exposure
6) While many groups do have transparent and internally democratic structures, some do not. Some are dominated by a few powerful or charismatic individuals. Disagreement or personality clashes can often lead to splits. This can be seen for example with Extinction Rebellion and the setting up of the more radical Beyond Politics party in 2020.
7) Many pressure groups have small and unrepresentative memberships and may not be truly representative of public opinion. Those that shout loudest may not be the megaphone of the majority. political parties are better placed to assess competing claims for resources and policy direction.

Question 38

Primary v Secondary pressure groups

Answer 38

Primary groups - represent interests and views

Secondary groups - providing a service (AA)

NIMBYism - Not in my neighbourhood - not democratic

Clicktivism - people learn nothing from pressure groups

Question 39

Other influences on pressure groups - think tanks

Answer 39

• Organisations that exist purely to develop new policies, which are privately funded by donations from individuals, groups or businesses
• Some have a clear political position, such as the Fabian Society being socialist and the Adam Smith institute being the right of centre - others are neutral and independent (Chatham House)
• Do not campaign for political parties but instead aim to convince them or the government to adopt their ideas
• Political policies were traditionally developed within political parties, but Tony Blair began the trend of using think tanks
• Many politicians have close links to think tanks, such as Iain Duncan Smith setting up the Centre for Social Justice
• Think tanks produce detailed policy and research which can be used by political parties
• They may be consulted by political parties when formulating policy
• They frequently appear in the media to comment on policy debates

Question 40

Other influences on pressure groups - lobbyists

Answer 40

• Political operatives who are paid to influence the government
• They are usually employed by corporations or wealthy pressure groups
• Arrange meetings with influential politicians and try to convince them to support the aims of their employer
• Lobbying has grown in the UK over the last 2 decades, with more than 100 lobbying firms in the UK, but it remains a much bigger industry in the USA
• Many former UK politicians or political advisers become lobbyists, using their contacts to get access to current government officials
• In the 2015 ‘cash for access’ scandal, Jack Straw and Sir Malcolm Rifkind, both foreign secretaries, were revealed to be prepared to lobby for companies in return for large sums of money - although legal, it shows their impact

Question 41

Other influences on pressure groups - corporations

Answer 41

• Corporations may be invited by the government to contribute to policy discussions and to help produce legislation relevant to their business
• They lobby the government (often using professional lobbyists) for favourable conditions of business such as low taxes, fewer regulations and better infrastructure
• They may threaten to leave the UK entirely or relocate some of their business to another country if the government does not meet their demands
• Large multinational companies can structure their business across several countries, resisting UK government attempts to make them pay tax
• Governments are wary of alienating big businesses as they are crucial to the economy and employ more people - they also generate tax revenue
• Many owners of large corporations also make donations to political parties, particularly the Conservatives
• Most big corporations actively campaigned to Remain during the 2016 EU referendum (minority supported Leave) but they were ignored by the British Public
• Many corporations fund think tanks that support their aims such as the Institute of Economic Affairs opposing plain cigarette packaging and received funding from the British American Tobacco

Question 42

Other influences on pressure groups - the media

Answer 42

• Governments are scrutinised by the media, and are keen to attract positive reports; communication with the media is a key priority for every government
• Government ministers often have personal links with key figures in the media (Cameron and Rebekah Brooks in 2012, who was editor of News of the World and the Sun)
• Support from newspapers can help governments win elections and increase enthusiasm for their policies within parliament and the country