UK Politics - Democracy and Participation Flashcards
What is democracy?
- It literally translates to ruling by the people; there are two main types in the UK
Representative democracy:
- A system of democracy in which people vote for elected representatives, for example in local and general elections
- Elected representatives then make decisions on the people’s behalf
Direct democracy:
- A form of democracy in which people decide on policy initiatives directly as opposed to indirectly through their elected representatives, votes take place on special questions, such as the EU referendum
What is representative democracy?
- Representative democracy is by far the most common form of democracy in the UK, with regular elections for parliament, local councils and until 2020 and Brexit, to the European Parliament
- It involves people voting for representatives who then serve in parliament or on councils or MPs
- At a Westminster level, all MPs belong to a political party, and they make decisions and pass laws on behalf of voters
- Accountability comes in the form of regular elections when voters can endorse or reject candidates at the ballot box
- Follows the Delegate Model of representation, which is the model in which representatives vote according to how they think their constituents would want them too
What are the advantages of representative democracy?
1) Elected representatives have the knowledge and skill to make often difficult and complex decisions on behalf of voters
2) By being responsible, nearly all areas of policy and decision-making, they are able to take a broader view of issues and balance effectively competing claims and issues, and this is particularly significant when it comes to priorities for allocating spending, balancing budgets and setting taxes
3) Belonging to a political party enables voters to have a good idea of how representatives will act once in power and it is empowering as they choose who will make their voices heard and it encourages participation
4) Representative government is more efficient than laying numerous decisions and laws directly before the people for approval or rejection
5) It’s efficient, saves time and money and this can be devoted to other needs
What are the disadvantages of representative democracy?
1) Not always reliable; they do not always reflect the will of the people - the only way to voice dissatisfaction is voting them out at the next election
2) misplaced trust, system doesn’t hold elected representatives accountable
3) It can become inefficient - can develop massive bureaucracies
4) Can invite corruption, candidates may misrepresent their stances on issues or policy goals in order to achieve political power - deceptive motives
5) Limit representatives from serving their jurisdiction - focus on the majority
What is direct democracy and the examples of its use?
- Direct democracy is quite opposite to representative democracy (it is the most pure form); it entails directly involving the people in policy choices as opposed to leaving it purely to elected officials; referendums are a common form of this democracy, and direct democracy in practice is rarely used in the UK and then almost exclusively reserved for constitutional issues
Examples of direct democracy -
1) 1973 - Northern Ireland; vote on whether it would remain part of the UK
2) 1975 - whole of the UK - vote on continued membership of the EU
3) 1979 and 1997 - Scotland and Wales; proposed introduction of devolution
4) 1998 - London; referendum on whether or not there should be directly elected mayor of London and the creation of the Greater London Authority
5) 1998 - Northern Ireland; Good Friday Agreement
6) 2011 - whole of the UK - alternative voting system proposed to replace FPTP
7) 2011 - Wales; vote on whether more powers should be transferred to the Welsh Assembly
8) 2014 - Scotland; independence referendum
9) 2016 - UK; EU referendum
Comparative - direct democracy used elsewhere
- The use of direct democracy in the UK contrasts sharply with other democracies that use it much more often; for example, in Switzerland, the practice is strongly embedded in the political culture, with the idea that 50,000 people can challenge any piece of legislation within 100 days of its adoption in parliament, a process known as an optional referendum and a clear check on representative government
- There is also scope for citizens to draw up their own laws provided 100,000 people within 18 months sign up to the measure, and amongst these measures in recent years include joining the UN and banning the construction of minarets for mosques
- Direct democracy exists in town hall meetings in New England states - initiatives are also sometimes used in the US
- The Republic of Ireland also has made quite extensive use of referendums on ethical issues that have led to the legislation on both abortion and same-sex marriage
- Direct democracy is an idea presented by Edmund Burke, as part of the Burkean theory of representation
Direct democracy advantages
1) It works. Direct democracy, whether referendum or e-petitions, is popular with voters and engages them, e.g. turnout in the 2014 Scottish independence referendum was a record 84.6%. It also functions well in other countries such as Switzerland.
2) It improves political education. People can be motivated to become politically well-informed and research relevant material and points before arriving at a rational and considered decision.
3) It promotes political participation. people can participate directly in the decision-making process.
4) It improves accountability. Elected representatives or the government cannot ignore the wishes of the people. It can sometimes provide a useful corrective when the MPs views are out of step with the country at large, such as with Brexit.
5) It enhances legitimacy. Decisions have the Direct authority and mandate of the people. This gives them greater legitimacy. When people vote in elections, they may not necessarily agree with all the policies in a party manifesto.
6) It is often considered to be a purer form of democracy since it allows and trusts the whole adult population to have a say and decide on issues directly instead of through representatives.
Direct democracy disadvantages
1) There is a lack of political education. The public may not fully understand the question that they are voting on. Elected representatives might be better placed to analyse and evaluate the issue. It also undermines representative government.
2) Turnout is often low for referendums, like that for the introduction of an AV (alternative vote) in 2011, where the turnout was just 42%. This reduces any notion of democratic legitimacy.
3) Referendums are not binding on the government. in the UK parliamentary sovereignty prevails under the terms of the constitution.
4) Populist outcomes can prevail. people no vote for emotional or populist short-term reasons rather than taking a more considered and long-term view. Many sources of information are one-sided and often sensationalist in their approach; presentation of an issue creates misinformed decisions
5) It is impractical. In a large and diverse country, greater use of referendums in particular would be costly and time consuming. If the public were allowed to propose legislation, it could make some aspects of effective government impossible, e.g voters could choose both to lower taxes and increase spending on public services.
6) The majority of people may vote for something that undermines the rights of a minority group (tyranny of the majority). Can the removal of certain basic rights ever be justified in a democracy?
Features of a democracy - elections, representation and participation
Elections:
- These should be fair, free and secret, with everyone having the right to equal say in selection of their elected representatives irrespective of gender, class, ethnicity etc
- Challenge - turnout may vary according to age group
- Questions; lowering voting age, prisoners voting
Representation:
- Those who are elected must act in the best interests of the citizens in their area and represent their views effectively; the people must be able to represent their opinions through elected representatives
- Challenge - most elected representatives belong to a political party and therefore represent party views most of the time
- Question - how far do MPs represent the views of constituents?
Participation:
- People can get involved and contribute to politics and policy making in a number of ways, according to commitment, aptitude and opportunity
- Challenge - there is a wide range of participation opportunities, some of which require more commitment than others
- Question - are higher levels of participation open to all equally?
Features of a democracy - legitimacy, accountability and rule of law
Legitimacy:
- Governments and legislatures have legitimacy or legal authority as they have been fairly chosen by the people in elections
- Challenge - the FPTP electoral system distorts party representation at Westminster; no recent UK government has won the support of over 50% of those who voted, let alone a majority of the entire electorate
- Question - should voting be compulsory, or should the electoral system change
Accountability:
- Those elected to government or local councils are held accountable for their actions, which should be transparent, open and free from corruption
- Challenge - there are frequent complaints about how government and public bodies try to cover up their mistakes, and there are also many allegations of cronyism and partisan favouritism in many areas of government
- Question - is there need for more independent scrutiny of government?
Rule of Law:
- Laws apply equally to everyone including the government and elected officials, with anyone who breaks the law being punished
- Challenge - many argue that politicians and other elected officials sometimes see themselves as above or exempt from these laws
- Question - do we expect too much of our politicians or are their double standards?
Features of a democracy - smooth transition of power, civil rights and education & information
Smooth transition of power:
- There is a formal process for handing over power from one government to the next, which takes place peacefully without violence or mass protest
- Challenge - in general, elections and government handovers are calm and peaceful, with the prolonged hiatus and debate in parliament over a Brexit deal being unusual, but was viewed by some Leave campaigners to be a thwarting of the people’s will
- Question - Do we need a more transparent system for forming a government?
Civil rights:
- The rights of the people are protected and defended by the law and through the courts
- The UK lacks an embedded set of civil rights and relies largely on parliamentary statutes that can in theory be repealed, with access to justice being prohibitively expensive for many
- Question - How well does the UK compare to other Western democracies when it comes to protecting civil rights?
Education and information:
- The public are well educated politically and have access to accurate information from trustworthy sources, which enables effective and informed participation in the political process
- Challenge - many media sources and information is biased or one-sided, creating unfounded rumours - election campaigns have to rely on high simplified messages that at their worst can be very misleading
- Question - is greater regulation of media, perhaps even social media, necessary to avoid fake news and conspiracy theories?
Suffrage since 1832 - how it has changed
- Before the Great Reform Act in 1832, Britain acted more like an oligarchy, with political power being in the hands of the only a small group of wealthy voters; they were mainly men, wealthy and property owners, who were members of the Church of England and often part of the aristocracy
- Universal suffrage came mostly through evolution rather than revolution; it started with only 2.7% of the population being able to vote, but as soon as voting eligibility started to be expanded it was inevitable that the momentum for political reform would continue until virtually all the adult population was enfranchised
- The transition from oligarchy to democracy was largely peaceful, however there were frequent incidents of popular protests, especially with movements such as the working class movement of the Chartists and the suffragettes - this would occasionally lead to outbreaks of violence and law breaking
- By the end of the process nearly all adults except prisoners and peers gained the right to vote, and those not registered are those aged 16-17, those who have failed to register (illegal citizens) and many foreign citizens
- Extension of the franchise was accompanied by other measures aimed at enhancing democracy, and these included establishing the secret ballot in 1872, banning direct bribery of voters (1883) and redrawing constituency boundaries to make them more equal in terms of population (1885)
Great Reform Act 1832
- The Whig government of Lord Grey
- One in five male adults could now vote, comprising 5.6% of the population
- It abolished ‘rotten boroughs’ such as Old Sarum, which were constituencies that had almost no voters but dutifully elected 2 MPs every election
- One of the problems before 1832 is that MPs were not representative of the people - some places were not represented at all, such as cities like Manchester, who had no political representation and obscure places also did not have the vote
- The industrial revolution was the driving motivation behind the Great Reform Act in 1832; the main achievement was the redistribution of seats, with 57 boroughs losing MPs and 31 only returned one MP, creating 67 new constituencies (Birmingham, Manchester and Leeds) - made the Commons more distributed in terms of the areas it served
- Property qualifications were also lowered to make it more available to more middle class people, and also expanded it to property renters who paid over £10 of rent - reduction in the amount needed to be owned in order to vote, which doubled the electorate (now 8%)
- Considered a milestone in the path to democracy; women were disenfranchised by this act however, as it specified only men could vote as they had simply just not been mentioned in previous legislation
- These types of acts are generally passed to prevent political upheaval - the leaders of the revolution were commonly middle class, and so giving them the right to vote appeased the working class too (French Revolution)
The Second Reform Act 1867
- Conservative government of Benjamin Disraeli
- Much bigger in scope, allowing many working class men in cities to vote, doubling the size of the electorate, and meaning that roughly ⅓ of all men could now vote
- It retained a difference in the franchise between the cities and the counties
- The death of the Prime Minister at the time who opposed reform and the conversion of William Gladstone to the cause helped spur the call for passing the next reform act - initially proposed by a liberal government
- Lord Derby and Disraeli formed a conservative government and introduced a reform bill after an economic crisis that had caused riots, hoping to capitalise on the good will of including the skilled working class in the vote; it granted the vote to all lodgers who paid rent of above £10 and house owners, and gave the vote to tenants and landowners, reducing the property qualification even further (doubled electorate again to 16%) - much more radical due to a series of Liberal amendments
- However, a lot of agricultural labourers were left without the vote - Disraeli used this act to win a majority in the next election
The Third Reform Act 1884
- William Gladstone’s Liberal government
- Established a uniform franchise across the country for men
- All working men who met a property qualification (very low) could vote and this meant a total of 40% of adult men were still excluded, mainly rural working class men
- Joseph Chamberlain - leader of the radical wing of the liberal party, arguing the counties were dominated by the wealthy and farmers, and that the redistribution of seats meant small towns had the same representation as large cities
- It proposed a new form of franchise - in the UK, any male property owner and rent payer above £10 would be eligible to vote; if you owned a house, you could vote, which included the agricultural labourers (⅔ of men could now vote)
- The redistribution bill in 1885 would create more seats in densely populated areas
- Chamberlain declared the reform act the most significant act for representation
- However, ⅓ of men and all of men were still excluded, and more universal systems of constituency numbers and seats
The Representation of the People Act 1918
- David Lloyd George wartime coalition government
- This was a product of the social and political changes caused by WWI and meant all men over the age of 21 and 19 as a veteran could vote
- Women over 30 who met the property qualification could now vote
- 12.9 million women 8.4 million women, with the only voters being disenfranchised being conscientious objectors to labours for men who were banned for 5 years
- Women however had to meet qualifications for property, occupying a property or owning the property up to £5 a year; also had to be 30 years old - lots of women who had done essential war work but were unable to vote either because of their age or their lack of earning property
- This was because the amount of female voters would outweigh the number of male voters, because many men had died in the war, and this was seen as politically incorrect
- This was voted through on a free vote, and although the war had improved attitudes towards women, many MPs were trying to prevent this passing, but it won with comfortable majorities in both houses
Equal Franchise Act 1928 / Representation of the People Act 1928
- Stanley Baldwin’s Conservative government
- Women finally received the the vote on equal terms to men and all men and women over 21 could now vote, and property qualifications were removed
- RoTPA was a huge step forward, but this act looked to remove the restrictions to give them the votes on the same criteria as men - this RoTPA was also very instrumental in helping women’s rights over the next ten years helping with property and occupational rights
- 1925 Conservative government (Stanley Baldwin) whose Home Secretary William Johnson Hicks, along with female MPs created the bill and proposed it (Winston Churchill opposed the bill, thinking it would be the downfall of the Conservative party)
- 1928 saw it passed with enough parliamentary support, and women were able to vote for the first time on the same criteria as men (same property, same age etc)
Representation of the People Act 1969
- Harold Wilson’s Labour government
- The voting age was lowered to 18
What is suffrage?
The right to vote.
Universal suffrage means everyone having the vote and effectively equates to democracy.
Case study - Representation of the People Act 1969
Extending the vote to 18-20 year olds -
- Whereas other changes to the franchise were the result of mounting public pressure and campaigning, the decision to extend the vote to 18-20 year olds was much more about responding to social change; the status of this age group had been changing since the Second World War, with growing numbers going on to university and also seeking to get married and buy or rent a house
- The law did not however regard them as capable adults
- The Latey Committee was set up in 1965 to investigate lowering the age of majority from 21 to 18, its original remit was to look at issues such as marriage and property ownership but its report published in 1967 also recommended that the voting age be lowered - one section of the report commented that young people ‘are handicapped in their attempts to make the best use of their lives by the fact that so many people around them to seem to expect the worst; it would be truer to say that considering the temptations they are subject too, they could fairly be astounded at their own moderation’
- The government accepted its findings and the law was changed in 1969 - the change also took place in a decade widely associated with social and political reform, and liberalisation in several areas, including homosexuality, abortion and capital punishment
