UK Government; The Prime Minister and Cabinet - Powers and Role

Question 1

The powers of the PM - patronage

Answer 1

The power of the individual to appoint someone to an important position. The most significant power is the power to appoint government ministers, other patronage powers have been curtailed in recent years;

• Appointing judicial and ecclesiastical roles - appointing judges and senior members of the Church of England, which was reduced under Gordon Brown’s government
• The Honours system - the Prime Ministers role in the honours system has also been reduced

Question 2

The powers of the PM - Appointing cabinet ministers

Answer 2

Power to appoint and dismiss government ministers, giving them a key advantage over his cabinet - parties give tier leader a free hand in appointing cabinet ministers

• In theory, PMs can create a cabinet in their own image, rewarding party supporters and penalising disloyal MPs, but the 2010 coalition agreement meant that 5 LibDems had to be appointed to the cabinet, including Nick Clegg, creating a more divided cabinet - they can make united or divided cabinets
• Coalitions are the only limit on this power

Question 3

The powers of the PM - Cabinet Reshuffles

Answer 3

• Can reshuffle cabinet portfolio’s - some ministers are moved from one post to another or dismiss some entirely
• This allows the PM to promote successful ministers, and demote those who have underachieved
• The PM decides the timing of the cabinet reshuffle, but a sudden resignation might force and unwanted one

Question 4

The powers of the PM - Authority in the cabinet system

Answer 4

With the post of PM comes the specific authority in the core executive: they are the central figure, and have sole sovereignty of the cabinet and the executive branch;
- Chairs cabinet meetings
- Manages the agenda of the cabinet meetings
- Directs and sums up cabinet decisions
- Creates cabinet committees and appoints their members
- Holds bilateral meetings
- Appoints senior civil servants
- Organise the structure of government
They are ‘first among equals’.

Question 5

The powers of the PM - Agenda Setting

Answer 5

They determine the agenda of cabinet meetings by:

• Controlling information presented to ministers by determining which issues and papers should be brought before cabinet
• Keeping potentially difficult issues off the cabinet agenda
• Deciding on the chair, membership and remit of cabinet committees, where much detailed policy work occurs

Question 6

The powers of the PM - Party leadership

Answer 6

They are by law the leader of a party, and by convention the leader of the largest party in the Commons.

• A working majority in parliament strengthens the position of the PM as it means that he or she is more likely to enjoy the confidence of the Commons and be able to enact legislative agendas
• Party leadership strengthens the authority of the PM; Labour and Conservative leaders are elected by their MPs and party members, legitimating their authority and position
• Blair enjoyed authority within parliament and his party in the first few years in office due to his two landslide election victories, and he reformed Labour’s organisation so as to enhance the position of the leader

Question 7

The powers of the PM - Public Standing

Answer 7

Main spokesperson for the nation, and in many contexts such as international meeting act on behalf of the head of state

• As such he has unique access to the media, and the PM’s press office holds a key position
• There is a danger that, in terms of public perception, the PM is perceived as a head of state, thereby eclipsing the monarchy, where in reality they are simply a spokesperson
• They show the PM in either a positive or negative light, and the next election may see a downfall of popularity or uprise based on this

Question 8

Prime Minister and Cabinet Key terms

Answer 8

Prime Minister: The first or leading minister, the head of the government.

Cabinet: Group of around 20-25 senior ministers who meet regularly, usually weekly. The cabinet is chaired by the Prime minister and is the key decision making body in the UK government.

Core executive: The part of the government that implements policy. This covers the Prime Minister, the Cabinet, the Cabinet Committees, the Cabinet Office, the government departments and the Senior Civil Service.
- It is the functional apex of decision-making, making ‘war and peace’ decisions, shaping the UK’s external relations and commitments, homeland security and immigration, strategic economic policies and the direction of broad policy agendas from the PM

Question 9

The origins, structures and powers of the core executive

Answer 9

• Due to the evolving nature of the British constitution, the position of Prime Minister has never formally been established, different to the entrenched nature of the US Presidential position - the PM emerged as opposed to being formally created
• The first generally recognised holder of the title and the longest serving, Robert Walpole, was appointed first lord of the Treasury, chancellor of the exchequer and Leader of the House of Commons in 1721, with the term Prime Minister not being widely used to describe his role but being accurate to depict his position
• Walpole lost his position after a no confidence vote in parliament, significant due to the fact that the since the PM is formally chosen by the monarch, they must always command a majority support in parliament, and so the origins of the office fit well with a definition by a later PM, Herbert Asquith
• He defined it to be a constitutional practice that rested on ‘custom, convention, often of slow growth in their early stages, not always uniform but which in the course of time received universal observance and respect’
• Only in more recent times, (1992) a full codified guide, the Ministerial Code, appeared, which set out formally the duties and expectations of the Prime Minister and government ministers (work of authority)
• Synoptic link - the origins of the post of PM is an example of how the UK’s codified constitution often relies on convention and tradition not formal definition, and the Ministerial Code is an example of ‘piecemeal codification’

Question 10

How is the Prime Minister chosen?

Answer 10

• Unlike the US President, the UK Prime Minister is not directly chosen by voters in an election, but under the parliamentary system the PM is the leader of the majority party in Commons
• It is technically the monarch invites the leader of the party to form and lead the government, but convention requires they must summon the leader to command a Commons majority
• When an election is not clear cut, such as the 2017 hung parliament, the monarch has to exercise caution when abiding by this convention, and as Theresa May was the leader of the largest single party, despite the loss of overall majority, she was offered the first chance to form a government
• This was on the condition that she was able to gain a ‘confidence and supply’ arrangement with the Democratic Unionist Party and remained PM

Question 11

What circumstances cause a Prime Minister to leave office?

Answer 11

• Prime Ministers mainly leave office due to a loss of an election and are forced out by voters, and others such as Harold Wilson in 1976 retire mid-term due to health concerns
• In other cases, pressure from the parliamentary party that makes their position untenable, and causes resignation of the leader without the loss of Commons majorities
• Theresa May won the 2016 Conservative leadership election without grassroots party members having a say after her rival pulled out of the leadership race; Boris Johnson became the Tory leader in 2019 after defeating his opponent Jeremy Hunt by a two to one margin vote by 138,000 Conservative Party members
• Prime Ministers elected under such circumstances often feel the lack of a direct personal mandate and may call another election in the hope of securing public endorsement, and this was true of both May and Johnson
• Their elections were also due to desires to secure strong support for their Brexit approaches
• Synoptic link - May’s election as Conservative leader and therefore as PM in 2016 is an example of, in certain situations, members of political parties having a major role mid-term selecting the next PM, but the opportunity is absent if the leader is unopposed within the parliamentary party

Question 12

What are the key roles of the core executive?

Answer 12

1. Making policy - It is the role of the executive first to set political priorities and then decide upon policy often at cabinet meetings or in cabinet committees; secondly, the civil service, the administrative section of the core executive, has the job of implementing this policy and running the state on a day-to-day basis
2. Passing legislation - Although parliament must pass all laws, major acts are first discussed and approved at cabinet level before being sent to parliament for debate and the final decision, and most of the time this is relatively straightforward due to the PM’s party having a Commons majority, but on occasions such as Brexit this is more problematic and protracted
3. Financing - A key role of the executive, especially the Chancellor and the Treasury, is to make decisions on taxation and government spending. These decisions are normally announced in the annual budget, and there is usually much discussion and negotiation between different ministers and departments over where and how taxpayers money is spent. Cabinet can be the forum where arbitration takes place, overseen by the Prime Minister
4. Being the national first responder - In times of national emergency such as war, terrorist outrages or the coronavirus pandemic, the executive is required quickly to and efficiently to put together emergency measures to deal with the threat as best it can, and reassure the public and calm fears. Many of these situations require swift and crucial cooperation between departments and ministers. For example, handling the COVID-19 crisis required input from departments overseeing health, the police and armed forces, education and social security as well as the Treasury.

Question 13

The structure of the executive branch

Answer 13

• Prime Minister - Elected and accountable MP (ie. not an unelected peer); the majority party leader is invited by the monarch to become PM and form a government
  The Prime Minister’s Office -
• PM is responsible for success of the office as a whole
• Groups in PM’s office include;
  
  • Private office - Administrative support (eg. preparing
    papers for meeting)
  • Policy unit - Monitors work of other departments and gives independent policy advice
  • Press office
  • Political office

Question 14

The cabinet - members, appointment and importance

Answer 14

• PM decides which MPs and peers will be a member of their government
• Policy decisions must be approved by cabinet, not just the PM
• Cabinet meets once a week
• Policy decisions are binding on all ministers → collective responsibility (convention)
• 22 cabinet ministers under Johnson (July 2021) and 5 others who are invited to cabinet meetings
• Convention requires them to be elected and accountable MPs
• Most have the title of ‘Secretary of State’
• Runs the department in their title
• Some have other titles;
  eg. Chancellor of Exchequer is responsible for Treasury
  eg. Home secretary is responsible crime, immigration, fire, police, and drugs

Question 15

What are Cabinet Committees, sub-committees and inter-ministerial groups?

Answer 15

• As the size and role of the cabinet increased over time, the PM can create specialist Cabinet Committees and sub-committees
• Relevant Cabinet ministers work together in smaller groups on specific policy areas
• May established 4 main cabinet committees, and 9 sub-committees
• Johnson has 14 main committees and only 1 sub-committee
• Inter-Ministerial groups → flexible gatherings of only a subset of a committees membership to address a specific questions
• They became controversial as they became more informal under Thatcher and even further so under Blair
• Not all discussions/decisions were referred to or approved by formal Cabinet Committees
• Recently they were renamed to inter-ministerial (from ad-hoc) in a hope to formalise and legitimise them
• Now claiming that they can support policy development but cannot make binding decisions

Question 16

What is the role of the Cabinet office?

Answer 16

• Supports the Prime Minister and the Cabinet works, coordinating work across committees and departments
• Before world war 1, it lacked proper official and administrative support, tending to have informal meeting and not noting any official agendas and ministers could return to their department without being entirely clear on what was agreed and what they should so
• With the onset of World War one, it was quickly realised that cabinet needed to be much more efficient and organised, and a cabinet secretary was asked to attend meetings, make notes on what was said and agreed and ensure any ministers not in attendance knew what to do - this introduced accountability to the office
• Has around 10,000 members of staff who support ministers and the PM and they timetable meetings, write agendas, circulate minutes, write briefings and ensure all ministers are prepared for cabinet and committee meetings
• Provide collective government by providing the coordination of the development and implementation of policies that occur across multiple departments and resolves disputes between departments

Question 17

Ministerial Hierarchy in ministerial departments

Answer 17

• 23 ministerial departments varying in size and support of civil servants, with junior ministers sporting their secretary of state
• Minister shave different titles to reflect seniority -
  
  1. Secretaries of state - overall controls the department
  2. Ministers of State
  3. Parliamentary Under-Secretaries of State - most junior
     role
• Parliamentary Private Secretaries - unpaid advisors who are considered part of the payroll vote and are expected to vote with the government
• Newly appointed ministers may have big ideas, but in order to turn these in detailed policy they need the support of experienced civil servants

Question 18

The role of the civil service

Answer 18

• Provide administerial and professional support, employed by the Crown - responsible for policy-making
• Advise ministers on policy development and implement policy in the non-departmental public bodies
• Coordinated and managed by the PM who is the Minister for the Civil Service by convention
• The most senior civil servant is the cabinet secretary who runs the cabinet office and acts as a senior advisor to the PM and cabinet

4 key principles:

1. Permanent role, not temporary like ministers; will remain in government and possibly may have worked for other governments in the same department, but are overall working on expertise
2. Must be impartial - politically neutral, impartial advice based on expertise and must implement policy regardless of their opinion, whereas ministers are partisan and ideological
3. Kept anonymous to protect them - this allows them to remain honest, whereas ministers have a high profile in the public eye
4. Accountable to ministers - this is different to ministers who are accountable to parliament
   - Civil servants are appointed on merit rather than politics, making them more honest

Question 19

What are special advisors?

Answer 19

• Spads - A special form of civil servant, and are temporary and partisan loyal to the party in government and often have an existing relationship to their minister
• They are free to give political advice and influence political matters that it would be inappropriate for civil servants to become involved in, providing political spins to debate arguments to build on the impartial expertise and knowledge of civil servants

Question 20

What are ‘arms-length bodies’ and why have they become increasingly important?

Answer 20

• The implementation of policy is often done by these departments, and they are kept at an ‘arm’s-length’ from ministers to remove them from politicisation and simply make them effective businesses for carrying out policy
• Have specific functions decided by the department e.g. Department of Education has 17 agencies and public bodies
• Executive agencies are business units legally part of a department by have separate management, and perform specific functions
• Non-departmental public bodies are established by department, but are legally separate an staff are not civil servants, operating at an arm’s length rom ministers to avoid political interference
• Non-ministerial department are heard by civil servants and board members not ministers and have more control over their policies and budgets, and are accountable to the minister

Question 21

What are the main powers of the core executive? (prerogative powers)

Answer 21

Many executive powers are derived from the royal prerogative, powers once held by the monarch but now in the hands of the government. Key powers include;

• The appointment (and dismissal) of ministers by the prime minister, and other patronage powers
• The deployment of UK armed forces overseas
• Relations with international powers and international diplomacy
• Making and ratifying treaties
• The organisation and structure of the Civil Service
• Issuing directives and statements during national crisis and emergencies
• 2018 Air Strikes on Syria → authorised solely using prerogative powers, despite the convention of consulting Parliament first

Other powers derive from the ability of the executive to get its legislative agenda through parliament and to control the parliamentary timetable. All policy statements and executive decisions have to be lawful and covered by legislation to avoid ‘arbitrary government’, a characteristic of dictatorships and authoritarian governments, not liberal democracies. A good example is when, during the COVID-19 pandemic, Prime Minister Johnson instructed people to stay at home except for a few exceptions such as purchasing food, key workers travelling to and from work and one short session of daily exercise. However, for these guidelines to have any force, such as fines for those who defy them, parliament had to pass the Coronavirus act 2020.

Overall, whilst it’s predictive powers are considerable, the executive cannot ignore its limitations. Arguably, the willingness of parliament to back executive policy is equally important. The positive dimension for the executive is that it normally controls Parliament so has few problems passing the required legislation.

Question 22

The significance of the prerogative powers of the executive

Answer 22

Significant power - The opportunity to deploy the Armed Forces overseas is clearly important. UK governments are not formally required to seek parliamentary approval for such actions, nor seek approval for any additional funding.
- Check - By convention all recent military action overseas has been put before a vote in the Commons. This was true for the Gulf Wars and airstrikes on Syria and Iraq.

Significant power - Prime ministers enjoy unlimited choice over who joins and leaves their government. Unlike the US president, who must submit their cabinet nominations for formal approval from the Senate, there is no similar requirement in the UK. The presence of the Lord’s means that the prime minister can also select Minister’s who lack a democratic mandate.
- Check - Prime ministers are constrained in their choice of ministers. They must appoint a cabinet that not only has some diversity in background but also includes individuals from a broad spectrum of the governing party. For example, Theresa May had to include both Remainers and Brexiteers in her cabinet. Few cabinet members come from the Lords.

Question 23

The significance of the prerogative powers of the executive pt2

Answer 23

Significant power - In times of national crisis, the executive and above all the prime minister delivers broadcasts, speeches and messages via social media to inform and reassure the public. Around 27 million people were estimated to have watched Boris Johnson’s broadcast message about the first national lockdown during the COVID-19 crisis.
- Check - The executive and particularly the prime minister must also rely on parliament to pass relevant legislation such as anti-terror laws. The opposition will be quick to critique and monitor the executives response to emergencies.

Significant power - The executive plays a crucial part in negotiating treaties and agreements with other nations in areas such as trade and defence, without these normally being subject to direct parliamentary approval.
- Check - The Brexit saga shows how limited prerogative powers can be. A Supreme Court ruling forced the prime minister to submit any Brexit deal before parliament. in addition, even in foreign policy and diplomacy, the government is indirectly influenced by parliament, the media and public opinion.

Question 24

The function of the executive in making policy - propose legislation and budgets

Answer 24

• A proposed course of action and sees that it is implemented
• Significant amount of policymaking has been devolved to Scotland, Wales & NI
• Manifesto includes policies they want to implement if elected
• Decides how the country should be run
  
  1. Should taxes be higher or lower?
  2. How much should be spent on public services?
  3. Some are implemented under existing laws
     (secondary legislation) but others through new
     legislation
  4. Need to decide what to implement, how to get money
     and where to spend it
• Bulk of policy made in government departments
  
  • Civil servants outline options and risks
  • Special advisors give more political advice
  • Outside groups lobby and submit ideas
• Approved in cabinet committees and subcommittees
  
  • Help to coordinate the policies of similar departments
  • Cabinet office helps with coordination
  • Cabinet meetings
• Where policy questions can be referred to for a final decision
  
  • Plays a bigger role in coordinating, rather than making
    policy
• No.10/Prime Minister
  
  • Where broad policy aims can be set
  • No.10 Policy Unit gives the PM policy advice and
    monitors the departments

Example of government crossover on policy - COVID-19

• SAGE → CMO and GCSA → COBRA → PM → Cabinet
• PM held daily COVID-19 Meetings from Mid-March 2020
• Established Roadmap Taskforces

Question 25

The function of the executive in implementing policy - executing laws and day-to-day administration

Answer 25

• Take responsibility for everyday management such as ensuring taxes are collected, benefits are paid and public services are running correctly - this is day-to-day administration
• They also ensure that the laws passed by Parliament are executed and policy is put into action
• This role has been largely devolved to ‘arms-length’ bodies such as executive agencies, non-departmental public bodies and non ministerial departments and whilst they have their own leadership, they are accountable to the Cabinet office that installed the policy, deciding the details of legislation
• However, in the case of the 2020 GCSE and A Level Exams had the decision about grades decide by Ofqual, who decided the details of the policy and the implementation of it was given to this non-ministerial body
• The new government inherits a number of existing laws that still have to be maintained and altered, as well as introducing new laws and policy

Question 26

The power of the executive on the legislative agenda

Answer 26

• Policy needs to be approved by parliament after it is made and before it is implemented, and often acts of parliament need to be passed in order to give ministers new powers to implement the policy
• However, the executive has major influence over the legislative agenda, with government bills being rarely defeated, and they control the legislative timetable
• Excluding a few exceptions, the government has full control over proceedings in the Commons (20 opposition days)
• Programme motions are also used to limit how long government bills spend in the committee stage, report stage, and third reading, reducing the chance government bills are held up an delayed
• Changes to taxation have to be authorised by Parliament, and they have gained control over the expenditure since the 1689 Bill of Rights
• A lot of COVID legislation needed a Coronavirus Act (2020) allowed ministers the powers to implement COVID policy, allowing the furlough scheme, forcing people to stay at home and putting in financial protections

Question 27

The power of the executive with secondary legislation

Answer 27

• This has to be approved by Parliament, as primary legislation is often vague and sets out broad aims, with finer details left to government ministers to fill the gaps with statutory instruments to amend and detail the primary legislation - it would be impractical for parliament to use its limited time to debate every fine detail, and it is therefore easier to gain agreement on broad aims
• It also allows ministers to have flexibility with the changes to a law without needing entirely new legislation to be passed due to this devolved power such as the National Minimum Wage (1998) can be changed and details altered, and National Minimum Wage Regulations set and adjust the minimum wage
• The Public Health Act (1984) -> allowed for COVID legislation to be passed by allowing ministers to implement appropriate policies to deal with public health emergencies

Question 28

What does the democracy require of the core executive?

Answer 28

• The core executive should provide clear unification of public policies across government, so that the UK state operates as an effective whole, and citizens and civil society can better understand decision-making.
• The core executive especially, and central government more widely, should continuously protect the welfare and security of UK citizens and organisations. Government should provide a stable and predictable context in which citizens can plan their lives and enterprises, and civil society can conduct their activities with reasonable assurance about future government policies.
• Both strategic decision-making within the core executive, and more routine policy-making across Whitehall, should foster careful deliberation to establish the most inclusive possible view of the ‘public interest’. Effective policy should maximise benefits and minimise costs and risks for UK citizens and stakeholders.
• Checks and balances are needed within the core executive to guard against the formulation of ill-advised policies through ‘groupthink’ or the abuse of power by one or a few powerful decision-makers. Where ‘policy fiascos’ occur the core executive must demonstrate a concern for lesson-drawing and future improvement.
• The core executive and government should operate fully within the law, and ministers should be effectively scrutinised by and politically accountable to Parliament. Ministers and departments/agencies must also be legally accountable to the courts for their conduct and policy decisions.
• Policy-making and implementation should be as transparent as possible, while recognising that some special core executive matters may need to be kept secret, for a time. Parliament should always be truthfully informed of decisions and policy plans as early as possible, and House of Commons debates and scrutiny should influence what gets done.
• Policy development should ideally distribute risks to those social interests best able to insure against them (that is, at lowest cost). Consultation arrangements should ensure that a full range of stakeholders can be and are easily and effectively involved. Freedom of information provisions should be extensive and implemented in committed ways

Question 29

Strengths of current government -

Answer 29

• Before 2010, the government was strongly unified, with clear PM and cabinet control, strong ministerial roles within Whitehall departments and single-party governments, with clear and distinct strategy policy stances, features which were briefly visible in 2015-16 but not in the other years with the Brexit scandal that saw a conflict of ministerial responsibility (many major resignations, which endangered expertise for the sake of a Brexit stance)
• Cabinet government and extended Cabinet committee system provides key checks and balances on the power of the PM and their Downing Street Offices, fostering great deliberation before policy commitments are made, and a balanced approach with different departments ideally representing diverse interests and public reactions
• Because of these processes, the principle of ‘collective responsibility’ binds Cabinet ministers to publicly back every agreed government policy, and not to talk ‘off their brief’. Wider ministerial solidarity also requires all junior ministers to follow the government line (for example, resigning if they do not vote the government line in the Commons). This convention was held even over the July 2018 three-way Chequers agreement battle.

Question 30

Weaknesses of the current core executive

Answer 30

• The PM’s ‘three A’s’ powers are extensive, as they appoint ministers, allocates their portfolios and assigns policy issues across departments, and theoretically they can arrange policy trade offs to perfectly implement the policy agenda of the premier, and so the entirety of the core executive is dependent on a strong premier
• The UK still has a ‘fastest law in the West’ syndrome, with the fewest checks and balances of any liberal democracy on the Core Executive, especially in one party governments with secure Common majorities, and ministers can simply escape unfavourable consequences of bad policies through party loyalties making them invincible to the legislature
• Ministerial decision-making operates in a climate of pervasive secrecy, and ministers often withhold information from Parliament, rejecting Freedom of Information requests on questionable grounds and manipulate the flows of information to their own advantage, incurring small costs when found out unless a scandal takes place
• Cabinet decision making no longer operates in any effective collegial manner as PMs control the routing of issues through committees, and strong integration of government communications also enforces complete solidarity and deny opposition to policy that is manifesto determined, even if the policy will have negative consequences

Question 31

Opportunities and threats for the core executive

Answer 31

Opportunities:
Many lost central government competencies can be rebuilt with the exit from the EU, taking back control of economic and trade policy, encouraging a refocus on not fine controlling public services that are best run at regional or local levels, and will squeeze opportunities for other domestic legislation

Threats:
The Brexit process will remove many checks and balances on UK decision-making which enhanced stability and a long-run perspective in policy making and so the organisational culture of more short term and failure prone modes of decision making may reinvade key parts of UK policy, especially in economic regulation, innovation and environmental policies

https://www.democraticaudit.com/2018/10/24/audit2018-how-democratic-and-effective-are-the-uks-core-executive-and-government/

Question 32

The Cabinet Committee System Evaluation

Answer 32

• Prime Ministers have full authoritative power of the structure of cabinet committees, the complexity of the hierarchy and a unilateral control of Whitehall departments
• This allows them to reflect their priorities or respond to external changes, such as Cameron’s preferral of a larger cabinet committee system in comparison to May’s ‘closed-decision’ making style to deal with Brexit, the main priority of her premiership (31 major bodies compared to 21)
• PM’s decide how this elaborate system runs, is organised, who is within them and how they are involved
  May had a large amount of power concentrated in her hands because of her decision not to favour delegation, and so her positional power was bigger than that of Major’s but smaller than Blair’s as May still gave everyone a place on almost everything with the size of her committees
• The Cabinet Office secretariat provides a strong administrative core to the frequent meetings of the legislative scheduling conducted by the Leader of the Commons, and all the other policy decisions of the committees
• In the coalition government, the LibDems had more positional power in committees than in Cabinet posts, but public perception saw Conservative dominance due to their holding of top secretary of state ministerial portfolios in all but one department
• Ministers also control the administrative power of their departments, setting policy priorities, control key policy-making processes and shape how public money is spent
  Informal ministerial alliances use a ‘blocking power’ to delay decisions under the large majority rules that prevail in executive decisions making, and other ministers have political power through a strong relationship to the PM

Question 33

Cabinet Office Committees - Homeland Security and Budget

Answer 33

• Budgetary control has seen a complication in recent years also with NHS spending scandals and different policy lines of cutting back on and increasing spending this has meant that the treasury has lost some understanding of where spending occurs, and so the UK central government has no coherent programme for improving government sector productivity, undermining the role of the Treasury in its control of public spending
• Parliamentary control of intelligence services - Cabinet Office Committee; Intelligence and Security Committee which requests budgets with no further information, and so intelligence services largely remain away from democratic control
• Homeland security - COBRA meetings are held as part of a resilience system to cover civil contingencies; however, no meeting was held over Grenfell, a major downfall that suggests the influence of ministerial bias on political agendas, and also fuels the controversy over an ‘inner state’ which is undemocratic and despite its transparency makes decisions to benefit the access intelligence services to information

Question 34

Policy Fiascos

Answer 34

• The key sources of these are a lack of checks and balances, such as in areas of Universal Credit changes in social welfare, the cover-up of the deaths at the Hillsborough football stadium and the Department of Health’s actions over the poisoning of NHS patients over many years
• Majoritarian government, strong Whitehall traditions and a lack of accountability to the legislature create a very strong executive using Crown prerogative powers, and the ministerial elite is often viewed as being too powerful, using their ‘generalist’ civil servants to implement ill-advised policy
• This results in an over location of responsibility for scandals on ministers and advisors, neglecting to hold the civil service accountable
• The risk of unconstrained executive action is especially severe where a PM and close advisors fall prey to ‘groupthink’ which occurred when the 2017 general election was triggered

Foreign policy failures:

• Intervention in Libya 2011
• Iraq War 2003 - showed how the core executive operated, with Blair and his communication chief pushing military action through Commons with false information

Domestic policy failures:

• Brexit - leading case for the requirement of the core executive to provide unified control with checks and balances, as a vacuum of leadership was created that spoke to a collapse of the core executive’s role
• Grenfell tower fire - two significant policy failures in the core executive with failing to fund fire services and sustaining poor and vague building regulations paired with a failure to review these despite MPs lobbying for a review created the disaster, and a lack of response in England despite Scotland seeking to clarify regulations shows the significance of policy mistakes, and also the lack of influence of the core executive on devolved government policy

Question 35

Summary of the Core Executive

Answer 35

The UK’s core executive once worked smoothly. It has clearly degenerated fast in the 21st century. Westminster and Whitehall retain some core strengths, especially a weight of tradition that regularly produces better performance under pressure, reasonably integrated action on homeland security for citizens, and some ability to securely ride out crises. Yet elite conventional wisdoms, which dwelt on a supposed ‘Rolls-Royce’ machine, are never heard now – after eight years of unprecedented cutbacks in running costs across Whitehall; political mistakes and poor planning over Libya, Afghanistan and Iraq; and the unexpected loss of the Brexit referendum. Now this tarnished record may be capped by the looming threats of either leaving the EU on poor economic terms under a ‘hard Brexit’ strategy, or of being trapped in an unsatisfactory ‘soft’ Brexit, where the ‘dirty’ component of a ‘quick and dirty’ exit turns into enduring disadvantages.
The clouds in the form of recurring ‘policy disasters’ and ‘fiascos’ have also gathered. Both the Conservative and Labour party elites and leaderships, and Whitehall elites themselves, have seemed disinclined to learn the right lessons from past mistakes, or to take steps to foster more transparent, deliberative and well-considered decision-making at the heart of government.

Question 36

The changing role of the Prime Minister

Answer 36

• A prime minister cannot simply command and demand total obedience.
• Sometimes prime ministers have to to take hard and tough decisions with regard to both ministerial colleagues and to important policy decisions.
• Prime ministers must often work hard at persuading cabinet colleagues to fall into line and come around to their way of thinking.
• The role involves a lot of learning on the job.
• There is scope for carving out a certain leadership style from what is inherently a flexible role.

Question 37

Has the role of the prime minister become more presidential? - Relationship with cabinet

Answer 37

Yes -

• The role of the PM has become far more autocratic and towering, especially over the cabinet, which has moved from being a forum for open and balanced debate to a non-traditional cabinet system where the original model of cabinet government has ceased to exist
• The once venerable institution has become virtually powerless, and has become a compliant body to the wishes of the PM
• This accusation has been levelled often at Thatcher’s administration and Blair’s, as one of Blair’s colleagues Mo Mowlam lamented in the 2002 BBC2 documentary that she felt ‘Cabinet itself is dead, it doesn’t have a function to play’ and the Blair government was accused of preferring ‘sofa government’ or informal chats with two or three ministers including the PM to full length cabinet meetings - this is similar to the Executive Cabinet in the US, who are advisory in nature rather than being the centre of policy
• Thatcher was criticised for being intolerant and overbearing, having a cabinet comprised of ‘wets’ and ‘dries’ which short handedly depict a battle of dissenters and supporters with the former increasingly marginalised from positions of real influence

No -

• PMs with weak or non-existent parliamentary majorities are in a very different position
• Theresa May in July 2018 → divided cabinet agreed the ‘Chequers deal’ over Brexit but 2 cabinet ministers resigned in the following days [Brexit secretary, David Davis & foreign secretary, Boris Johnson]
• May failed to get her deal through and was forced out of office, resigning in June 2019
• Her position as leader was severely weakened as she had a deeply divided party and lacked a Commons majority (was dependent on DUP to pass legislation)

Question 38

Has the role of the prime minister become more presidential? - Leadership style

Answer 38

Yes -

• Spatial leadership - in the 2010-15 coalition government, which had to prioritise consensus and compromise, saw power concentrated in the four leading figures, known as the Quad, comprised of David Cameron (PM), Nick Clegg (Deputy PM), Chancellor George Osborne and Chief Secretary of the Treasury Danny Alexander
• This is when distance is created between the Prime Minister and the rest of the government and party - when the PM relies on a great extent on an inner circle of advisors, the smaller group of confidants is sometimes known as a kitchen or inner cabinet and this style of leadership creates less emphasis on delegation of power; Thatcher and Blair provided presidential leadership over collaborative, whereas May and Cameron preferred more collaboration and equality among the most powerful cabinet members

No -
- Thatcher and Blair were effectively forced out of office due to their leadership style, despite having large majorities
- They had criticism, division in their party and controversial policies (Blair- Iraq War & Thatcher - poll tax)
Loyalty on backbenches in never guaranteed and is conditional
- All PMs have to work through/with ministerial colleagues (eg. Blair and his chancellor, sometimes rival, Gordon Brown)
- Enoch Powell observed in a 1977 biography that “all political lives, unless they are cut off in midstream at a happy juncture, end in failure, because that is the nature of politics and human affairs”
- It would be hard to identify a recent PM who has left office entirely at a time and nature of their choice

Question 39

Has the role of the prime minister become more presidential? - Special advisors

Answer 39

Yes -

• Harold Wilson first appointed SpAds in the 1960s, and their role has only grown in importance, as they are political and are personal appointments made by the PM; they are policy advisors who have power over the PM at the expense of fellow ministers and the civil service
• An example of a notorious SpAds was Blair’s chief of staff and press secretary, Alistair Campbell
• Theresa May appointed Nick Timothy and Fiona Hill as hers whilst Boris Johnson selected Dominic Cummings to do this service - Cummings had control over the recruitment happening in government, and this control of the SpAd in constructing a government holds similarity to the role of the White House Chief of Staff under the President of the US
• Many are long time political associates of the PM, such as Sir Eddie Lister who was chief strategic advisor after previously working with Johnson when he was Mayor of London
• There have been criticisms of the role of special advisors - Clare Short stated in her 2003 resignation speech that the issues with Labour’s second term in office were partly due to a centralisation of power into the hands of the PM and an increasingly small number of advisors who made private decisions without public discussion
• Cummings’ departure confirmed this view, increasing the widely held perception among both the public and the Conservative party that he had too powerful of an influence on the PM and was a focus of constant criticism, exemplified by his escapement of punishment for breaching COVID isolation laws with his 260-mile trip in the 2020 lockdown

No -

• The power of special advisors remains unclear
• The tendency to appoint and listen to them can be the result of a feeling that the civil service is set in its ways and has its own agenda
• Some PMs have expressed frustration with its preference for fussy and inconvenient routines and procedures
• Gerald Kaufman (a former senior minister) pointed out in his book to “Be sure of this, when you become a minister, the system will be there waiting for you and watching you. Antagonise it and you can do very little. WIn its cooperation, and you can do quite a lot”
• The best way for ministers and the PM to wield power is to work with others, listen and liaise, and refuse to become captive of a small clique

Question 40

The role of the Prime Minister has changed greatly because ->

Answer 40

• Several recent prime ministers, such as Thatcher and Blair, have been accused of running a more presidential style of leadership. It is claimed that they frequently bypassed full cabinet meetings and discussion, preferring instead smaller gatherings of key ministers and advisers.
• There has been a growth in the use of SpAds at the expense of seeking policy advice from the civil service
• The development of social media and ‘celebrity culture’ have arguably resulted in a growing focus on the personality and style of individuals rather than the wider cabinet. More demonstrably, this can be seen in the existence since 2010 of televised leaders debates as [part of general election campaigns.
• Increased media security and opportunities have led more prime ministers to focus on the popular media and take their message directly to the people, often preferring to appear on ‘soft format’ TV chat shows.

Question 41

The role of the Prime Minister has changed little because ->

Answer 41

• There have been no formal changes in the powers available to prime ministers in recent times. Twenty-first century premiers possess the same prerogative powers as their predecessors. Indeed, if anything, some powers have been reduced, including that of easily calling a fresh general election.
• The ‘predominant premierships’ of Thatcher and Blair should be assessed alongside more imperilled ones of John Major and Theresa May, and David Cameron’s coalition administration.
• The influence of SpAds is probably somewhat exaggerated, and the importance of more traditional sources of policy advice, such as fellow ministers and the civil service, should not be overlooked. For example, when devising the government’s response to the COVID-19 pandemic, the most powerful advice came from medical experts such as the chief medical officer, Professor Chris Whitty.
• Image-aware prime ministers are as likely to want to present themselves as collegiate and collaborative in their approach as they are to portray themselves as the sole and star player in the executive team. For example, during the COVID-19 emergency, Boris Johnson often appeared at media briefings with the chief scientific adviser, Sir Patrick Vallance.

Question 42

Quotes about the Prime Ministerial Role

Answer 42

“The British prime minister has evolved, and is evolving, away from what a prime minister used to do and used to be… British politics has accommodated and adjusted to a distinctive presidential dimension.”
- Michael Foley; ‘The British Presidency’ pub.2000

“To describe the prime minister as a president underplays the core degree of collegiality found within a parliamentary executive. It also underestimates the degree of leverage a prime minister, compared to a president, can have over both legislature and executive.”
- Richard Heffernan; 2005

“The first essential for a prime minister is to be a good butcher.”
“The office of prime minister is what the holder chooses and is able to make of it.”
- Herbert Asquith (PM 1908-1916, Liberal Party)

“Few prime ministers, except in wartime and rarely then, can dictate to their cabinets.”
- Harold Wilson (PM 1964-70, 1974-1976, Labour Party)

“One of the things I’ve learnt since coming out of office is how much easier it is to give the advice than take the decision. I mean, you know, it’s tough”
- Tony Blair (1997-2007, Labour)

“I’m not a good butcher, but have had to learn to carve the joint.”
- Margaret Thatcher (1979-1990, Conservative)

“The head of the British government is not a Grand Vizier (a high official). He has no powers, properly so called, over his colleagues.”
- William Gladstone (1868-94, 4 terms totalling 12 years, Liberal Party)