U11 - Personaility

Question 1

Personaility

Answer 1

• Relatively consistent patterns of thought, feelings, and behaviour that characterize a person
• Shapes how we interact with the world and other people

Question 2

Psychodynamic view of personality (two main premises)

Answer 2

• Psychodynamic theories emphasize the interplay between mental forces (psycho=mind, dynamic=energy or force)
• 1. people are often unconscious of their motives
• 2. defense mechanisms keep anxiety-producing motives outside of consciousness

Question 3

Defense mechanisms

Answer 3

• The various ways in which the ego is thought to cope with conflict between the unconscious desires of the id and the moral constraints of society
• According to Freud, defense mechanisms operate unconsciously

Question 4

three components of personality (Freud)

Answer 4

• Id: unconscious & instinctual drives/needs, Operates by the pleasure principle (do what feels good)
• Ego: mediates needs of the id within the constraints of the reality§Rational, decision-making part of the mind operating by the reality principle
• Supergo: internalized cultural rules & ideals guiding moral conscience

Question 5

Critiques and contributions of Freud

Answer 5

critiques
- Theory based exclusively on case studies, not systematic research
- Lack of testable theories, subjective approach (e.g., interpretation of dreams), prone to confirmation bias
- Overemphasis on sexuality
- sexist views

contributions
- The existence of unconscious processes
- Focus on and insight into mental processes
- Empirical support for some cognitive biases & defensive processes described by Freud—e.g.,
- Rationalization as a way of reducing cognitive dissonance
- Frustration can lead to aggression
- Although concept of recovered memories has been questioned, some evidence that some people may strive to keep distressing material out of awareness
- The importance of early development
- The influence of mind on the body
- The talking cure

Question 6

traits

Answer 6

• habitual patterns of behaviour, thought, and emotion that can be used to describe a person and that are observable in a wide range of situations

Question 7

trait approach to personality

Answer 7

• Traits shape how a person interprets situations and can lead people to behave in similar ways across different situation

Question 8

functionally equivalent situations

Answer 8

• Functionally equivalent situations are those that cue a similar response from a person
• different scenarios that lead to the same behavior or outcome because they serve a similar purpose for the individual.
• A child might cry to get attention from their parents at home or from a teacher at school. While the situations (home and school) are different, they are functionally equivalent because they fulfill the same need for attention.

Question 9

lexical hypothesis

Answer 9

• personality traits that are useful for differentiating among people will be reflected in language
• The hypothesis that the traits that provide useful ways to differentiate among people’s personality characteristics are necessarily encoded in language.

Question 10

factor analysis

Answer 10

• statistical technique that involves analyzing the interrelations among different variables to look for the common factors underlying the scores

Question 11

five-factor model (the big five)

Answer 11

• The dominant model in the trait approach to personality, which posits five key dimensions along which humans vary
• Open-mindedness to experience: Extent to which a person is imaginative and independent and prefers variety
• Conscientiousness: Extent to which a person is organized, careful, and responsible
• Extraversion: Extent to which a person is energetic and outgoing
• Agreeableness: Extent to which a person is good-natured, helpful, and trusting
• Neuroticism: Extent to which a person is calm and secure

Question 12

heritability

Answer 12

• Put simply, if identical twins show greater similarity in their traits than fraternal twins do, then a trait is said to be partly heritable.
• Heritability tells us how much of the differences in a trait (like height or intelligence) in a group of people are because of their genes. It’s about the group, not individuals.
• Example: If heritability of height is 80%, it means 80% of the differences in height in that group are due to genetics, while 20% are due to environment (like diet).
  It doesn’t mean your height is 80% from genes—it’s about the whole population.
• Twin Studies
  Identical twins (MZ) share 100% of their genes.
  Fraternal twins (DZ) share about 50% of their genes.
  By comparing how similar these twins are, scientists can see if a trait is influenced more by genes or by the environment.
  If identical twins are much more alike than fraternal twins, genes have a big influence.

Example: If both identical twins usually have the same mental health condition, genes likely play a role.
If both kinds of twins are equally alike, the environment is likely more important.

Example: If twins raised together have the same personality regardless of being identical or fraternal, the environment matters more.
If identical twins aren’t very similar, unique life experiences (not genes or shared environment) are likely important.

Question 13

social cognitive critiques of the trait approach

Answer 13

• Social cognitive theories of personality emphasize role of cognitive processes and social interaction in shaping personality
• Offer several critiques of the trait approach
  1. Correlations between traits and behaviors are modest (around r=.30)
  2. Individual consistency across situations is lower than imagined
  3. Traits can be reframed as templates used to perceive and categorize others, rather than internal forces that shape our behavior—this creates the illusion of consistency in people’s traits

Question 14

person x situation interaction

Answer 14

• A model positing that in order to understand and predict behavior, it is necessary to account for both personal dispositions and the situation people find themselves in, as well as the interaction between the two
• The “right” situations afford the opportunity to express a certain trait
• Some “strong” situations will evoke certain types of behaviour regardless of individual differences

Question 15

rejection sensitivity

Answer 15

• tendency to ”anxiously expect, readily perceive, and overreact to rejection” (Downey & Feldman, 1996)
• Individuals higher in rejection sensitivity were more likely to feel rejected in an ambiguous situation that could be interpreted as an experience of social rejection

Question 16

reciprocal determinsism

Answer 16

• idea that personality guides cognition about the world in ways that can shape the environments people choose, serving to reinforce or amplify their personality

Question 17

secure, anxious, and avoidant attachment

Answer 17

• secure: comfort with intimacy and seeking closeness, belief that others can be relied on and that support seeking will be effective, sense of self-efficacy in dealing with challenge
• anxious: excessive preoccupation with closeness and vigilance for signs of distance and rejection, difficult to reassure, “clingy”, lack of self-efficacy
• avoidant: discomfort with closeness and intimacy, distrust of others, overemphasis on self-reliance

Question 18

reflected appraisals

Answer 18

• these reflected appraisals are the means by which we gather information about ourselves through our interactions with others

Question 19

self-perception theory

Answer 19

-When we are uncertain about our attitudes and feelings, we infer them by observing our own behaviours

Question 20

social comparison

Answer 20

• We are driven to to evaluate our opinions and abilities
• When objective standards are not available, we engage in social comparisons

Question 21

self-esteem

Answer 21

• The positive or negative evaluation a person has of themselves

Question 22

self-enhancement motivation

Answer 22

• Motivation to view oneself positively
• Tend to view ourselves and process information in ways that allow us to maintain a positive attitude toward the self
  1.Self-serving attributions
  2.Above-average effect
  3.Idiosyncratic trait definitions
  4.Overestimating our contributions

Question 23

self-verification theory

Answer 23

• people strive to maintain a coherent self-view because it serves our need for prediction and control (Swann, 1990)
• Predicts that people will seek feedback that reinforces their self-view, even when self-view is negative

Question 24

sociometer theory

Answer 24

• posits that people use self-esteem as a “gauge” to assess the degree to which they are accepted by others
• Supporting evidence: our perceptions of acceptance & rejection influence our self-esteem

Question 25

Narcissism

Answer 25

• Unrealistic and self-aggrandizing views of the self
• Sense of superiority, entitlement, & need for admiration
• Can lead to defensiveness and aggression toward people who threaten their positive self-view
• Individuals scoring higher on narcissism more likely to retaliate aggressively against targets delivering negative feedback

Question 26

collectivism vs individualism

Answer 26

coll: group harmony, shared goals, and prioritizing the needs of the community over the individual

indiv: personal freedom, self-expression, and achieving individual goals

Question 27

interdependent self-construal (collectivism) vs independent self-construal

Answer 27

• sees the self as connected to others, defining identity through relationships and social roles.
• views the self as unique and separate, defining identity through personal traits and achievements

(While collectivism and interdependence stress group unity, individualism and independence emphasize personal autonomy.)