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PSYC 100 > U08 - Memory > Flashcards

U08 - Memory Flashcards

1
Q

The case of H.M.

A
  • case study of a man who had large part of his hippocampus removed in attempt to alleviate his seizures
  • led to severe form of anterograde amnesia (inability to form new memories)
  • what we have learned from this: there are several memory systems, with distinct neural substrates and functions
  • H. M. could not form new memories of people he had met, conversations he’d had, things he had done
  • But could learn new challenging skills
  • Suggests that there may be different forms of long-term memories, only some of which are reliant on the hippocampus
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2
Q

memory

A
  • the capacity to store and retrieve knowledge
  • allows us to use information from the past to respond quickly to new challenges and to navigate our environment
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3
Q

three stages of memory

A
  • encoding, process of acquiring information and transferring it into memory
  • storage, the retention of information for later access, can last from fraction of a second to an entire lifetime
  • retrieval, the recovery of stored information, what we retrieve is not identical to what was stored
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4
Q

multistore model of memory

A
  • model proposing that sensory information flows through three stores, sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory
  • these stores differ in their capacity and duration
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5
Q

sensory memory

A
  • A storage level of memory that holds sensory information on the order of milliseconds to seconds.
  • capacity = very large,
  • duration = very brief, less than a second
  • sense specific (like visual and auditory), includes iconic memories and echoic memories
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6
Q

Iconic memories

A
  • sensory memory for visual information
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7
Q

Echoic memories

A
  • sensory memory for auditory information
  • last slightly longer than iconic memories
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8
Q

Short-term memory

A
  • A storage level of memory where information can be held briefly, from seconds to less than a minute.
  • second stage of multiscore model of memory
  • duration: brief (seconds to a min)
  • capacity: small
  • only a small subset of information in sensory memory will receive subsequent processing
  • purpose of sensory memory may be to collect incoming data long enought to determine what is wroth processing
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9
Q

Chunking

A
  • process of grouping similar or meaningful information together
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10
Q

Working memory

A
  • extension of the concept of short-term memory that includes active manipulation of multiple types of information simultaneously
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11
Q

Phonological loop (working memory)

A
  • working memory component responsible for verbal and auditory information
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12
Q

Rehearsal (working memory)

A
  • the act of repeating information to keep it in short-term memory
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13
Q

Visuo-spatial sketchpad (working memory)

A
  • holds visual and spatial information
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14
Q

Central executive (working memory)

A
  • working memory component that directs the other components by directing attention to particular tasks
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15
Q

Long-term memory

A
  • Storage level of memory where information can be held for hours to many years and potentially a lifetime
  • No clearly defined limits in capacity or duration
  • Evidence of dissociation between short-term and long-term memory:
  • Serial position curve
  • Neuropsychological studies
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16
Q

Serial position effect

A
  • recall varies as a function of position within a study list
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17
Q

Primacy effect

A
  • better recall for items at the beginning of the list
  • due to more rehearsal –> storage in long-term memory
  • The existence of these effects shows that memory relies on both short-term processes for immediate recall and long-term mechanisms for lasting retention. It underscores how rehearsal and timing influence whether information remains accessible.
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18
Q

Recency effect

A
  • better recall for items at the end of the list
  • due to availability of these items in short-term memory or working memory
  • disrupted if recall is delayed
  • The existence of these effects shows that memory relies on both short-term processes for immediate recall and long-term mechanisms for lasting retention. It underscores how rehearsal and timing influence whether information remains accessible.
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19
Q

Retrograde amnesia

A
  • unable to access memories predating brain damage, but able to store new memories in long-term memories
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20
Q

Anterograde amnesia

A
  • unable to form new long-term memories
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21
Q

Levels of processing theory

A
  • encoding is an active process that can occur at multiple levels ranging from shallow to deep

encoding:
- the process of receiving and interpreting information, which is the first step in learning and creating a new memory

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22
Q

Shallow encoding

A
  • encoding based on sensory characteristics, such as how something looks or sounds
  • maps onto basic brain regions related to perception of sensory information
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23
Q

Deep encoding

A
  • involves making associations between new information and old information already stored in your brain
  • relies on processing information in a manner that goes beyond appearance to involve its significance and meaning.
  • leads to better memory performance
  • Encoding based on an event’s meaning as well as connections between the new event and past experience.
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24
Q

Elaboration

A
  • making associations between new information and old information already stored in your brain
  • engages higher-order brain regions related to thought (eg. frontal lobes, temporal lobe regions related to semantic information)
  • also associated with increased activity in the hippocampus
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25
Q

Self-referential encoding

A
  • type of deep processing where information is related to oneself
  • enhances memory retention
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26
Q

semantic encoding

A
  • a form of deep encoding, operates on the meaning of events and yields better memory than merely processing what a stimulus sounds like or looks like
27
Q

ranking of different forms of encoding

A

Self-Referential Encoding: Most effective, as personal connections enhance engagement and retention.
Semantic Encoding: Highly effective due to the emphasis on meaning, which strengthens memory traces.
Elaboration: Effective, but its impact depends on the depth and quality of the connections made.
Shallow Encoding (e.g., structural or phonemic): Least effective because it relies on superficial features like appearance or sound, which do not create durable memory traces.

28
Q

explicit/declarative (a form of long-term memory)

A
  • intentional, conscious
29
Q

implicit/nondeclarative (a form of long-term memory)

A
  • occurs without intentional recollection or awareness, measured indirectly by observing effect of prior learning on behavior
30
Q

Procedural memory

A
  • type of implicit memory related to the acquisition of skills (eg. riding a bike, using scissors, knitting, or drawing a five-pointed star in the mirror)
  • This form of memory for procedures need not be actions but can also be habitual ways of thinking, like doing multiplication or reading.
  • (H.M. could learn new skills but could not remember learning them in the first place)
  • when procedural skills become automatic, can direct our attention
31
Q

Priming

A
  • change in response to a stimulus as a result of exposure to a previous stimulus
  • is the increased ability to process a stimulus and facilitate behavior due to previous exposure to the stimulus.
  • eg. complete word stem with previously seen word
  • is observed in patients with amnesia, demonstrating that implicit memory is intact
  • not reliant on hippocampus or deeper processing
  • implicit memory, unconscious
32
Q

affective conditioning

A
  • specific type of classical conditioning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated an emotionally charged stimulus, leading to a conditioned emotional response
  • recall “little albert” study
  • is preserved in amnesic patients
  • does not rely on hippocampus
  • implicit
33
Q

episodic memory

A
  • explicit recollection of personal experiences
  • allows you to travel back in time (retrospective memory) through episodic memory
  • remembering
  • explicit memories of personal experience
  • relies on hippocampus
34
Q

retrospective memory vs prospective memory

A
  • retro: ability to recall events, facts, and experiences from the past
  • pros: memory for things we need to do in the future
35
Q

Semantic memory

A
  • explicit memory reflecting knowledge about the world, including concepts and facts
  • knowing
  • explicit memories of facts about the world
  • does not rely on hippocampus
  • mediated by surrounding parts of temporal lobe
36
Q

hebbian learning

A
  • neurons that fire together, write together
  • when two neurons are active at the same time, the connection between them becomes stronger
  • this strengthening of the connection make it easier for them to activate each other in the future
37
Q

long-term potentiation

A
  • which is an enduring (long-term) enhanced (potentiation) form of communication between neurons. Long-term potentiation is regarded as the most likely cellular mechanism supporting long-term memory
38
Q

long-term potentiation and CREB

A
  • During learning, LTP increases the amount of CREB (cAMP-response element binding) protein, which might represent the molecular basis of memory
  • it turns out that CREB is able to interact with genes in neurons, which can increase the neuron’s response to stimulation
39
Q

memory consolidation

A
  • process through which a memory trace is stabilized and strengthened following its initial acquisition
  • may be disrupted by presentation of new information presented shortly afterwards, head injury, ECT
  • sleep leads to stronger memory consolidation
40
Q

memory reconsolidation

A
  • Reactivation of consolidation by retrieving a memory, making the memory susceptible to change
  • whereby retrieving a memory returns it into a momentary, unstable state, rendering it vulnerable to change, similar to consolidation of the original memory
  • Memories are not just about the past; they are continuously updated to reflect the present.
41
Q

spreading activation model

A
  • memory is organized in associative networks where nodes (concepts) are linked together (associations)
  • concepts become associated if
  • they have co-occurred repeatedly
  • they share properties in common
  • when one mode is activated, related nodes become primed and are more easily retrievable
42
Q

Retrieval cue

A
  • stimulus or thought that primes a particular memory
43
Q

free recall

A

Accessing information from memory without any cues to aid your retrieval.

44
Q

cued recall

A

A form of retrieval that is facilitated by providing information related to the stored memory.

45
Q

retroactive interference

A
  • The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
  • after changing your phone passcode months ago, you can’t remember your old passcode
46
Q

proactive interference

A
  • The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.
  • You can’t seem to learn your new phone number because the old one is stuck in your head.
47
Q

encoding specificity principle

A
  • retrieval works best when it recreates the way the information was initially encoded
48
Q

mood-dependent retrieval

A
  • the increased likelihood of remembering when a person is in the same mood during both encoding and retrieval
49
Q

state-dependent retrieval

A
  • the increased likelihood of remembering when a person is in the same mental state during both encoding and retrieval
  • If you study for an exam after a few drinks, you will actually recall that information better if you also drink before you take the exam
50
Q

encoding failure

A
  • information never makes it into long-term memory
  • may occur bc we did not attend to it
  • eg. multitasking
51
Q

weapon focus effect

A
  • witness’s attention is drawn to a weapon during a crime, which impairs ability to remember other details of the event
52
Q

are emotional memories more likely to be remembered?

A
  • Brain activity is enhanced for emotional events in the amygdala and hippocampus.
  • Amygdala facilitates the consolidation of long-term memories made by the hippocampus
  • Stress hormones promote attention and encoding efficiency
  • Administration of a stress-hormone blocker (propranolol) reverses memory advantage for emotional events
53
Q

flashbulb memory

A
  • especially vivid and detailed memory of an emotional event
  • associated with more confidence but not necessarily more accuracy
  • A vivid memory for an emotionally significant event, thought to be permanent and detailed, as if frozen in time like a photograph.
  • Flashbulb memories are often part of the fabric of social identity and are more than one’s own memory; they are a community’s collective memory, which may one day become a part of history
54
Q

memory is constructive, study example

A
  • more like a persona mental ketch than a photograph.
  • the purpose of memory is not to make the most detailed record of past experience, but to pick out the important parts of an experience that could be useful later. sometimes, we even use inference to reconstruct what we think happened in the past, and these beliefs become part of our memory
  • In this way, thoughts and reasoning are central to how we remember.
  • The Loftus & Palmer (1974) study showed that memory is constructive and can be influenced by the way questions are worded. Participants watched a car crash video and were asked how fast the cars were going, using different verbs like “smashed” or “hit.” Those who heard “smashed” reported higher speeds and were more likely to falsely remember seeing broken glass.

This demonstrates that memory is not a perfect record of events; it can be shaped by suggestive language and post-event information, highlighting its reconstructive nature.

55
Q

Misinformation effect

A
  • additional information received after an event is later mistakenly recalled as part of the original event
  • in the Loftus and Palmer study, the leading question is the “misinformation”
56
Q

Source monitoring

A
  • ability to recall the context in which we acquired a memory
  • when we cannot remember whether we saw something in a news article of facebook newsfeed
57
Q

source memory

A
  • Similar to the “sources” reporters require to verify their reported information, the ability to recall the context in which we acquired a memory
58
Q

Source amnesia

A
  • occurs when cannot identify the provenance of our memory
  • when we forget whether we actually experienced an event or merely imagined it
59
Q

Imagination inflation

A
  • imagining an event that never happened increases confidence that it actually occurred
  • vividly imagining misleading information –> more likely to integrate misinformation into original memory
60
Q

reality monitoring

A
  • when we forget whether we actually experienced an event or merely imagined it
  • When we forget whether we experienced or imagined an event, this would be considered an error of reality monitoring
61
Q

gist memory

A
  • the general global aspects of the supposed event
  • mind fills in the gaps (missing or forgotten details) by using the gist
  • gist memories are highly durable and long-lasting
  • the general global aspects of the supposed event, rather than the verbatim memory, the specific details
62
Q

Verbatim memory

A
  • the specific details of an event
  • the general global aspects of the supposed event, rather than the verbatim memory, the specific details
63
Q

Deese-Roediger-McDermott false memory paradigm

A
  • The Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm is a psychological experiment where participants are shown a list of related words (e.g., “bed,” “rest,” “pillow”) but not a critical word strongly associated with them (e.g., “sleep”). Later, participants often falsely remember seeing the missing word.

This shows that memory is constructive and relies on associations, making it prone to errors. Our brains fill in gaps with related information, which can lead to false memories.

PSYC 100 (11 decks)

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