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PSYC 100 > U09 - Motivation & Emotion > Flashcards

U09 - Motivation & Emotion Flashcards

1
Q

Motive

A
  • internal force that moves individuals to act in a certain way
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2
Q

Instincts

A
  • innate, genetically endowed, do not require learning
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3
Q

Homeostasis

A
  • process by which organisms maintain stable internal environment despite changes in the external environment
  • must compensate for changes in the environment to keep the internal environment within range
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4
Q

drive reduction theory of motivation

A
  • drives organisms to engage in activities that will reduce this tension and restore homeostasis
    -explains how people are motivated to reduce physiological imbalances, or “drives,” to maintain homeostasis, or a steady state

drive:
- internal state of arousal or tension caused by deviation from homeostatic set-point

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5
Q

Congenital insensitivity to pain (CIP)

A
  • rare genetic disease characterized by complete inability to perceive pain
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6
Q

value of pain

A
  • pain is crucial for protecting from injuries
  • pain is our body’s way of telling us to pay attention to something that could cause tissue injury or death
  • captures attention and motivates action
  • supersedes other goals we may have in the moment
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7
Q

Pain matrix

A
  • A distributed network of brain regions, including the amygdala, that respond to many types of pain.
  • Whether it’s your toe that’s stubbed or your friend who’s snubbed, your pain matrix leaps into action. Even the dread we feel while waiting for something awful to happen (like getting a shot) activates the pain matrix
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8
Q

Sensory component of pain

A
  • pain signals provide specific information about what is happening
  • this is the sensory component of pain (eg. somatosensory cortex)
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9
Q

Affective component of pain

A
  • motivation for a specific response
  • this is the affective component of pain (eg. dorsal anterior cingulate cortex anterior insula)
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10
Q

reward (used 3 ways in psyc literature)

A
  1. something we want
  2. something we like
  3. something that serves as a reinforcer in learning
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11
Q

Wanting

A
  • the desire for a reward, sense of anticipation
  • typically measured by amount of effort individual will exert to obtain the reward
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12
Q

Liking

A
  • the subjective feeling of pleasure we experience when we receive a reward
  • the hedonic gloss
  • that pleasure
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13
Q

Alliesthesia

A
  • reward value of stimulus increases with effectiveness of that stimulus in restoring homeostasis
  • eg. food tastes better when you’re hungry
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14
Q

Reward and pain are interconnected

A
  • extensive similarities in neurobiological substrates of pain and pleasure
  • pain can inhibit perception of reward
  • reward may decrease pain perception (placebo effects)
  • relief from pain is more than simply an attenuation of pain, it is pleasurable
  • strength of signal and pleasure of relief depends on degree to which negative expectancy is violated
  • pessimists (who generally hold more negative expectations) experience greater dread of adverse event and greater relief when adverse event is avoided
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15
Q

nucleus accumbens

A

???

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16
Q

Harry Harlow (1958) on love (and monkey experiment)

A
  • love and affection can, and should be, studied scientifically
  • point of departure for study of love: the affectionate bond of a child for its mother

experiment
- infant monkeys raised alone in a lab showed severe developmental issues
- noted strong attachment the laboratory-raised infants developed to the soft cloth pads used to cover the floor of their cages
- made two types of surrogate mothers, one wire hard and one covered in soft cloth
- so conclusion: attachment isn’t just about food, the monkeys preferred the cloth, they spent their most time with it

  • Behaviourist perspective: childcare viewed in terms of “training”, “stimuli”, “conditioned responses
  • Harlow’s work helped understand significance of physical affection for child development
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17
Q

John Bowlby’s attachment theory (1969)

A
  • took evolutionary perspective
  • infants cannot survive without caregiver to protect them from harm - some mechanism must be in place to keep infants close to caregivers
  • posits the existence of a universal, evolved biobehavioral system (attachment system) that motivates maintenance of proximity to caregivers (attachment figures) in infancy/childhood, thus promoting survival
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18
Q

brain opioid theory of attachment

A

The brain opioid theory of attachment proposes that the brain’s opioid system, which regulates pleasure and pain, is central to forming and maintaining social bonds. Positive social interactions, such as affection and bonding, release opioids like endorphins, creating feelings of comfort and reward that reinforce attachment. Conversely, the absence of social connection or loss of an attachment figure reduces opioid activity, leading to emotional distress. This theory highlights the biological basis of attachment, showing how brain chemistry supports bonding and emotional regulation.

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19
Q

glucostatic hypothesis

A
  • low glucose levels serve as internal hunger cue
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20
Q

lipostatic hypothesis

A
  • body regulates food intake and energy expenditure over the long-term based on amount of stored fat
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21
Q

hypothalamus

A
  • receives signals related to levels of glucose, leptin, and other hunger and satiety hormones
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22
Q

dual-center theory

A
  • The contrasting roles of these two hypothalamic centers are described by the dual-center theory, in which the lateral hypothalamus serves as the “go” center for eating, while the ventromedial hypothalamus serves as the “stop” center.
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23
Q

psychological factors that influence eating behaviors

A
  • Social, cultural, and other contextual factors influence eating behaviour
  • tendency to consider single unit/serving/portion of food as appropriate amount to eat, regardless of the size or caloric content of the unit
  • Influenced by cultural norms
  • Standards around physical attractiveness may promote eating disorders like anorexia and bulimia
  • Anorexia nervosa= characterized by extreme fear of gaining weight & caloric restriction§
  • Bulimia= characterized by episodes of overeating followed by compensatory behaviours(e.g., vomiting, laxative use, fasting, excessive exercise)
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24
Q

estrus

A
  • mammal’s period of heightened sexual receptivity and fertility
  • variation in frequency and duration across species
  • during estrus, sexual receptivity and behavior displays to attract mates
  • mediated by the sex hormone - estrogen
  • humans have menstrual cycle rather than estrus
  • series of changes in hormone production that prepare the body for pregnancy
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25
Q

concealed ovulation, leaky cues

A
  • possible evolutionary reasons: securing continuous male investment, avoiding unwanted sexual advances, avoiding aggression and competition with other females
  • some have argued that there may be subtle cues signaling ovulation, like attractiveness-enhancing behavior, male partners more jealous, scents, faces, and voices, etc)
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26
Q

testosterone and estrogen/estradiol

A
  • correlated with sexual interest in males
  • eg. men with higher testosterone levels tend to have stronger sex drive and report more frequent thoughts about sex
  • in men, the levels fluctuate throughout the day, ay respond to events and life changes like competition and parenthood
  • Estrogen/estradiol: Increases sexual desire and arousal in women, particularly during the fertile phase of the menstrual cycle, when estrogen levels peak. It enhances physical and emotional readiness for sexual activity.
    Testosterone: Drives sexual desire and behavior in both men and women. In men, it maintains libido and erectile function, while in women, it contributes to sexual motivation, especially when estrogen levels are low.
    Together, these hormones influence sexual desire, behavior, and reproductive readiness by acting on brain regions linked to motivation and arousal.
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27
Q

achievement motivation

A
  • desire to excel, succeed, or outperform others
  • ppl may vary in strength of their achievement motivation, but contextual factors matter as well
  • achievement-related behavior can arise from either a fear of failure or a desire for success
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28
Q

approach motivation

A
  • propensity to move towards some desired stimulus (reward)
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29
Q

avoidance motivation

A
  • propensity to move away an undesired stimulus (punishment, something that causes pain)
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30
Q

performance orientation

A
  • a motivational stance that focuses on performing well and looking smart
  • primarily an avoidance motivation
  • when individuals get negative feedback, more likely to withdraw effort
31
Q

mastery orientation

A
  • a motivational stance that focuses on learning and improving
  • associated with high levels of interest and a deep engagement with the material
  • primarily an approach motivation
  • when encountering adversity, they are likely to increase their effort and seek ways of benefiting from the experience
32
Q

fixed mindset

A
  • belief that intelligence and abilities are static and unchangeable
  • view feedback as judgment of inherent abilities and are more easily discouraged
  • may avoid challenges to protect self-image
33
Q

growth mindset

A
  • belief that intelligence and abilities can be developed through effort and learning
  • see feedback as valuable information for improvement
  • embrace challenges
34
Q

hierarchy of needs

A
  • abraham maslow’s (1943)
  • lower needs must be satisfied before pursuing higher level needs

bottom to top:
physiological (hunger, shelter)
safety (security)
belonging (acceptance, friendship)
esteem (reputation, self opinion)
self-actualization (achieving personal dreams)
self-transcendence (cause beyond the self)

35
Q

emotion, three components

A
  • a complex reaction pattern to personally relevant events (physical and social challenges and opportunities)
  • involves 1. experiential, 2. behavior/expressive, and 3. physiological elements
  • in contrast to moods, emotions are shorter-lived and specific (directed towards specific people and events)
36
Q

experiential component (emotion)

A
  • subjective experience of fear
37
Q

behavioral component (emotion)

A
  • characteristic facial expression
  • defensive behavior or escape
38
Q

physiological component (emotion)

A
  • increasing blood pressure and heart rate
  • increased respiratory rate
  • increased sweating
39
Q

james-lange theory of emotion

A
  • emotions are the result of perceiving bodily changes in response to some stimulus in the environment
  • different emotions are associated with different patterns of bodily responses
40
Q

cannon-bard theory of emotion

A
  • critique of james-lange theory
  • speed of emotional responses
  • bodily changes not sufficient to produce emotional experience
  • lack of distinct physiological patterns for each emotion
  • bodily response and emotional experience occur at the same time following a stimulus
41
Q

schachter-singer two-factor theory of emotion

A
  • emotional response is the result of an interpretative label applied to a bodily response
  • emotion involves cognitive judgments about the source of the bodily response
42
Q

misattribution of arousal

A
  • ascribing arousal resulting from one source to another source
  • plays a role in aggressive behavior
  • various kinds of aversive events (eg. pain and frustration, uncomfortably hot temperatures, crowding, loud noises, hunger) may contribute to aggression
  • why? unpleasant arousal associated with aversive event may be misattributed to social interaction
43
Q

appraisals

A
  • interpretations of a situation
  • shapes our emotional experience
44
Q

emotional granularity

A
  • degree to which an individual tends to make fine distinctions between various emotions vs making more global distinctions
  • like feeling bad, feeling disappointed, angry, jelous
45
Q

alexithymia

A
  • difficulty describing emotional experience
  • Has been linked to poorer emotion regulation, interpersonal functioning, mental health
46
Q

functionalist view of emotions

A
  • Emotions serve important functions—they do something
  • The multifaceted aspects of an emotional response provide a toolkit for solving problem
  • Help direct & prioritize attention, interpret events in the environment, move us to action, mobilize resources, & provide important social signaling functions
47
Q

functions of emotions

A

fear:
- Increases vigilance to threat-related cues
- Focuses attention on identifying available resources & avenues of escape
- Shifts motivational state
- Sympathetic nervous system changes (e.g., increased heart rate, respiration) helps prepare for physical exertion

shame:
- Key emotional response to threats to the “social self” (i.e., threats to one’s social esteem, status, and acceptance)
- Characteristic behaviour display: head down, slumped posture, averted gaze
- Thought to serve as a social signal that functions as an appeasement strategy to reduce social conflict

48
Q

proinflammatory cytokines, how they relate to shame

A
  • Inflammation is an immune system response to tissue damage or infection
  • Mediated by a type of molecule called proinflammatory cytokines
  • Sickness behaviour—social withdrawal, conservation of resources
  • Sickness behaviours—withdrawal, disengagement—may help pre-empt further social conflict & secure social support
  • Should the appeasement display fail, this pre-emptive immune response may help us should we sustain a physical injury during social conflict
49
Q

affect-as-information

A
  • The subjective experience of emotion is a key resource during problem solving and decision making
  • E.g., the pain we experience when our valued relationships are damaged may drive us to examine what behaviour may have led to this painful experience and make amends
50
Q

emotional expression: cross-cultural research

A

Studies (e.g., Ekman et al.) reveal that people from diverse cultures reliably recognize basic emotions like happiness, anger, and fear from facial expressions, even in isolated communities, suggesting these expressions are universal rather than learned.

51
Q

emotional expression: other animals

A

chimps

Similar emotional expressions (e.g., baring teeth in aggression or vocalizing in distress) are observed in other species, supporting the idea that emotions evolved for adaptive purposes, like communication and survival.

52
Q

emotional expression: among the blind

A

Research (e.g., Tracy & Matsumoto, 2008) shows that congenitally blind individuals display the same facial expressions as sighted people, such as pride or sadness, despite never having seen them, indicating these expressions are innate, not learned socially.

53
Q

contextual factors

A
  • Additional research has qualified some of the earlier work by demonstrating the extent to which perceptions of facial expressions can be powerfully shaped by the context in which the expressions occur (Aviezer et al., 2008). In such studies, researchers have taken posed emotional facial expressions and pasted them onto bodies demonstrating different postures or behaviors
  • the meaning we attach to facial movements is only partly determined by the movement themselves; the meaning is powerfully shaped by contextual factors
54
Q

focal emotions

A
  • which emotions are particularly common within a culture
  • shame more focal in interdependent cultures which place more emphasis on social cohesion and harmony
55
Q

display rules

A
  • culturally specific rules that govern how, when, and to whom people expression emotions
56
Q

emotion regulation

A
  • attempts to modify one or more aspects of emotion
  • May involve decreasing, increasing, or maintaining an emotion, depending on our goals
57
Q

five basic types of emotion regulation strategies

A

Situation selection
Situation modification
Attentional deployment
Cognitive change
Response modulation

58
Q

Situation selection

A
  • Choosing to expose yourself to some situations and not others based on the emotional impact you expect the situation to have—e.g., Avoiding anxiety-provoking situation
59
Q

situation modification

A
  • Changing one or more aspects of a situation you are in so it has a different impact on you
  • if you’re being distracted in class by a student who keeps watching YouTube, you can change seats to limit your annoyance.
60
Q

attentional deployment

A
  • changing your attentional focus
  • E.g., doing a fun activity to distract yourself from bad new
61
Q

cognitive change

A
  • modifying your thoughts to change your feelings
  • if a friend doesn’t respond to your greeting, you can think about how preoccupied they must be, rather than thinking that they were blowing you off.
62
Q

response modulation

A
  • changing one or more aspects of your emotional response
  • you. ight exaggerate your pleasure at receiving a gift from you parents, even when it’s not something you wanted
63
Q

suppressing vs reappraising our emotions

A

sup:
- conscious effort to inhibit expression of emotion
- tried to decrease the emotion they show on their face or in their behavior

rea:
- reinterpreting situation to alter its emotional impact
- viewing a bad grade on a test as an opportunity to improve study habits

64
Q

self-control

A
  • ability to resolve conflict between two competing desires in service of long-term goals
  • Can be difficult because sometimes we have to over ride our default responses
  • Refer to ability to exercise self-control as willpower
65
Q

strength model of ego control

A
  • According to this model, self-regulatory efforts draw on a finite pool of cognitive resource
  • engaging in self-control efforts depletes a finite pool of cognitive resources, in just the same way that using a muscle repeatedly tires it out
  • The Marshmallow Test is a famous experiment conducted by Walter Mischel to study delayed gratification in children. In the test, a child is given a choice: eat one marshmallow immediately or wait 15 minutes to receive two marshmallows. Researchers found that children who waited tended to have better outcomes later in life, such as higher academic achievement, better health, and stronger self-control.

The study highlights the importance of self-regulation and how the ability to delay gratification can influence long-term success. However, later research suggests that environmental factors, like trust in the reward, also play a role in the child’s decision.

66
Q

three factors that influence happiness levels

A
  • life circumstances
  • happiness set point
  • intentional activities
67
Q

affective forecasting

A
  • predicting what one’s emotional reactions to potential future events will be
  • We are often mistaken in our affective forecasts—especially when it comes to predicting the intensity and duration of the emotions we will feel
  • Research on affective forecasting in breakups shows that people often overestimate the emotional impact of negative events. “Luckies” (those without breakup experience) predicted they would feel much less happy two months after a breakup than “Leftovers” (those who had experienced one) reported actually feeling.

This highlights that people are poor at predicting their future emotions, often neglecting their ability to adapt and recover over time.

  • or professors underestimated how happy they would be right after failing to get tenure, Also overestimated how happy they would be immediately after getting tenure
  • Athletes overestimated the intensity & duration of their negative emotions on failing to reach their athletic goals
  • And, contrary to what most of us predict, winning the lottery does not actually make you happier in the long-term
68
Q

immune neglect

A
  • failure to take the effects of the psychological immune system into account when making our affective forecast
69
Q

focalism

A
  • when making an affective forecast, tendency to focus too much on the occurrence in question (the focal event—e.g., the breakup or the lottery win) and fail to consider other events that are likely to occur at the same time
70
Q

higher-level construal

A
  • Psychologically distant actions and events are thought about in abstract terms
71
Q

lower-level construal

A
  • actions and events that are close at hand are thought about in concrete terms
72
Q

hedonic treadmill

A
  • a psychological theory that suggests that humans have a tendency to return to a relatively stable level of happiness or subjective wellbeing, despite changes in their circumstances or external conditions.
  • the observed tendency of humans to quickly return to a relatively stable level of happiness (or sadness) despite major positive or negative events or life changes.
73
Q

science-backed ways to boost your happiness

A
  • Strengthen your relationships and engagement in your community
  • Practice gratitude
  • Give to others
  • Prioritize experiences over material possession

PSYC 100 (11 decks)

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