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PSYC 100 > U04 > Flashcards

U04 Flashcards

1
Q

Genome

A

The entire sequence of our DNA

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2
Q

Connectome

A

The connections between our neurons

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3
Q

Neurons

A
  • cell of the nervous system specialized for sending and receiving neural messages
  • 100 billion, making over 100 trillion connections
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4
Q

Sensory neurons

A

carry messages from the sensory organs (eyes, tongue, skin) to spinal cord and brain

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5
Q

Motor neurons

A

carry messages from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands

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6
Q

Interneurons

A

within the brain and spinal cord collect, integrate and retrieve messages from various sources

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7
Q

Dendrites

A
  • receives chemical messages from other neurons
  • the branches are so extensive bc to increase surface are of cell to receive signals from neurons
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8
Q

Cell body/soma

A

collects neural impulses, contains the nucleus (houses DNA), sustains cell functions

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9
Q

Axon

A

transports electrical impulses to other neurons via the terminal branches

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10
Q

Axon terminals/terminal branches

A

convert electrical signals into chemical messages for other neurons

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11
Q

Myelin sheath

A
  • Axon enclosed in it
  • fatty layer that insulates the axons and speeds up transmission of electrical signals
  • made up of glia cells
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12
Q

Myelination

A

the process of developing myelin

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13
Q

Glia cells

A
  • Half of the cells in the brain
  • nervous system cells that perform variety of critical support functions
  • provide structural support and scaffolding for neurons (guide neurons to where they’re supposed to be)
  • clean up debris(dead cells, protein clusters, etc)
  • form blood brain barrier (form tight connections with blood vessels)
  • They help neurons communicate with each other by helping to strengthen connections between neurons, or, on the other hand, pruning excess or weak connections necessary to make neural communication more efficient.
  • supply neurons with essential nutrients and oxygen
  • build insulation, critical for speedy and efficient signal transmission
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14
Q

Action potentials

A
  • The way neurons talk to each other, by firing off action potentials
  • generated at the junction between the axon and cell body
  • then move down the length of the axon
  • When a neuron is depolarized by sufficient input, it reaches a threshold for producing action potential, this is called voltage threshold
  • at peak of action potential, interior of cell more positively charged than outside
  • action potential is all or nothing, not stronger or weaker
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15
Q

Cell membrane

A
  • thing fatty skin enclosing the neuron
  • boundary between the inside and outside of the cell
  • selectively permeable, allows certain ions to pass and not others
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16
Q

Intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid

A
  • watery chemical soup
  • contains various electrically charged particles, or ions
  • intracellular (inside the cell)
    extracellular (outside cell)
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17
Q

Resting potential

A
  • neuron is at rest, more negatively charged particles inside cell, the imbalance between intracellular and extracellular fluid results in an electrical charge across the membrane (70 millivolts)
  • neuron cannot fire action potential at this resting tate
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18
Q

Ion channels

A
  • gate type structures
  • when neurons stimulate another neuron’s dendrites, ion channels open up in the cell membrane at the end of axon
  • allows positively charged sodium ions to pass from outside to inside of cell
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19
Q

Depolarization

A
  • happens when the ions outside of the cell want to get through to the inside and the ion channels open up
  • this movement causes the electrical charge across the membrane to begin to reverse
  • polarize means far apart, depolarize means less far membrane, so this means that the extracellular and intracellular environment is decreasing
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20
Q

Voltage threshold

A
  • When a neuron is depolarized by sufficient input, it reaches a threshold for producing action potential
  • once it’s reached, these voltage gated ion channels just open wide, positively charged sodium ions come flooding in from outside
  • once threshold is reached, the action potential is inevitable
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21
Q

repolarization

A
  • At peak of action potential, additional channels open up that allow for another type of ion, potassium ions, to move across membrane
  • they move from inside cell to outside, and negative direction comes out again
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22
Q

Refractory period

A
  • after action potential, at the end of repolarization, there is a temporary dip below resting potential, this is the refractory period
  • at this period, it is hard to get neuron to fire again
  • this period ensures that action potential is propagated forward, bc action potential moves like a wave along the axon
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23
Q

Synaptic cleft

A
  • At the end of axon, when the action potential (the electrical signal) reaches its end, the neurons don’t actually touch each other
  • They are separated by the synaptic cleft
  • electrical signals are unable to jump over this cleft so they are converted into a chemical one, neurotransmitters
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24
Q

Neurotransmitters

A
  • electrical signals are unable to jump over this synaptic cleft so they are converted into a chemical messages, neurotransmitters
  • they cross gap and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron
  • they don’t hang around receptors long, they get cleared out of the synaptic cleft shortly after transmitting signal
  • this clearing is done in a few ways: diffusion, degradation, and reuptake
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25
Q

receptor

A
  • channel in membrane of a neuron that binds neurotransmitters (receives it from the neuron across)
  • binds neurotransmitters in lock and key fashion, where only a certain neurotransmitter can bind to a certain receptor
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26
Q

Diffusion

A

Way of clearing neurotransmitter out of synaptic cleft: drift away

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27
Q

Degradation

A

Way of clearing neurotransmitter out of synaptic cleft: broken down by certain enzymes around in the synapse

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28
Q

Reuptake

A

Way of clearing neurotransmitter out of synaptic cleft: reabsorbed into the presynaptic terminal branches

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29
Q

Excitation

A
  • receiving neuron slightly depolarized
  • excitatory currents are those that prompt one neuron to share information with the next through an action potential
  • moves the neuron closer towards voltage threshold and increases likelihood of action potential
  • excitatory inputs contract muscle
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30
Q

Inhibitation

A
  • receiving neuron slightly hyperpolarized
  • moves the neuron further from threshold and reduces likelihood of action potential
  • while inhibitory currents reduce the probability that such a transfer will take place
  • inhibitory inputs tell muscles to relax
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31
Q

GABA

A
  • A type of neurotransmitters within a class of it
  • GABA is within amino acids
  • Binds to major inhibitory receptors; influences muscle tone
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32
Q

Acetycholine

A

A class of neurotransmitters

  • Binds to both inhibitory and excitatory receptors; contributes to muscle control
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33
Q

Monoamines

A

A class of neurotransmitters, includes norepinephrine, serotonin, dopamine

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34
Q

Neuropeptides

A

A class of neurotransmitters, includes endorphins

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35
Q

Norepinephrine

A

Under monoamines, which is a class of neurotransmitters

  • Involved in fight-or-flight response activation
36
Q

Serotonin

A

Under monoamines, which is a class of neurotransmitters

  • Contributes to feelings of happiness and well-being, appetite, and sleep
37
Q

Dopamine

A

Under monoamines, which is a class of neurotransmitters

  • Associated with reward and pleasurable experiences
38
Q

Endorphines

A
  • Under neuropeptides, which is a class of neurotransmitters
  • “endogenous morphine”
  • promote feelings of pleasure and reduce pain
    codes for opioid receptor where endorphins bind
39
Q

Psychoactive drugs

A
  • chemical substances that alter a person’s thoughts, feelings, or behaviors by influencing the activity of neurotransmitters in the nervous system
  • Psychoactive drugs are artificial chemicals introduced into the body that “piggyback” onto the preexisting infrastructure used by your body’s own neurotransmitters.
40
Q

Agonists & antagonists

A

Agonist:
- enhances action of a neurotransmitter
- by increasing release, block its reuptake or mimicking neurotransmitter and activating its postsynaptic receptor

Antagonist:
- inhibits actions of a neurotransmitter
- by blocking release, destroying neurotransmitter in synapse, binding to a postsynaptic receptor to block neurotransmitter

41
Q

Opioid addiction

A
  • psychoactive drugs don’t just bind for a short period of time and then leave, if used for long time, they can change existing infrastructure that they’re hijacking and overpower reward function of endogenous opioids
  • repeated use causes changes to receptor structure
  • loss of sensitivity for naturally occurring rewards
  • Repeated exposure to opioids alters the brain so that it functions normally only when the drugs are present and abnormally when they are not, resulting in addiction.
42
Q

Nervous system

A
  • complex network of nerves (bundles of neurons) that controls and regulates all bodily functions
  • subdivided into central nervous system and peripheral nervous system
43
Q

peripheral nervous system

A

Consists of two parts: somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system

44
Q

somatic nervous system

A
  • carries voluntary commands from the central nervous system to the muscles, controls our deliberate movements
  • brings sensory input back to central nervous system CNS
45
Q

autonomic nervous system

A
  • carries involuntary commands to organs, blood vessels, and glands
  • operates outside of our conscious control
  • divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic branches
  • autonomy = independence
46
Q

sympathetic nervous system

A
  • helps during war
  • prepares body for situations requiring expenditure for energy, like fight or flight response
  • stores glucose, gives you energy, increases hearty rate, etc etc
  • redirects energy during emergency
47
Q

parasympathetic nervous system

A
  • opposite of sympathetic
  • helps during peace
  • helps to recuperate and recharge
  • controls glands and organs during calm periods, returns body to resting state
  • the rest and digest system
48
Q

endocrine system

A
  • network of glands that release chemical messengers - hormones - into the blood
49
Q

hormones

A
  • diff from neurotransmitters
  • slower than neurotransmitters
  • blood-borne chemical messengers
  • travel over greater distances, further than the synaptic cleft
  • important for metabolism, arousal, sex, growth, etc
50
Q

adrenal hormones (two types?)

A
  • adrenal glands located on top of kidneys and secrete different kinds of hormones, like adrenaline and cortisol
  • during times of stress, the sympathetic nervous system activates the adrenal glands, release of adrenaline and cortisol
  • help to do some things in body during this stress
51
Q

pituitary gland

A
  • called the “master gland,” regulates other glands, director of them
  • regulates hunger, sexual arousal, growth, sleep, and even navigation of your social world
52
Q

oxytocin

A
  • produced by the hypothalamus, released into the blood stream by the pituitary gland
  • plays important role in social bonding
  • Vole experiment: Intranasal oxytocin increases trust, generosity, cooperation, emotion recognition, empathy, more positivity, less conflict
  • HOWEVER, effects of oxytocin agonism in humans are not always consistent
  • Some studies found no effects, or even negative/antisocial effects
  • Sometimes, oxytocin actually amplify the distrust in ppl with very high levels of dispositional distrust
  • One hypothesis: may make social information more salient but subsequent behavior will depend on the filters through which you interpret the social information
53
Q

spinal cord

A
  • within central nervous system
  • it is major bundle of nerves connecting brain to rest of the body
54
Q

spinal reflexes

A
  • initiated by spinal cord without involvement of the brain, like response to painful stimulus
  • quick reaction is happening at the level of the spinal cord, signal doesn’t have to reach the brain in order to respond to danger
  • reflex near a hot stove
  • pain receptors detect, electrical signals carry by sensory neurons to spinal cord, interneurons within spinal cord process signal and relay it motor neuron, motor neurons send command to muscles to react
55
Q

brainstem

A
  • on top of the spinal cord, lowest region of the brain
  • where spinal nerves and most cranial nerves connect
  • regulates vital functions, damage to this area is lethal
  • contains midbrain, pons, and medulla
56
Q

medulla

A
  • heart rate, blood pressure, reflexes like coughing and swallowing, involuntary systems
  • heart and lungs - medal goes over your heart and lungs
57
Q

pons

A
  • breathing, speed it up and slow it down when you body needs it
  • relays sensations like hearing, taste to higher levels of the brain
  • pons = bridge, involved in balance and coordination
58
Q

reticular formation

A
  • inside pons and medulla, runs through brainstem into midbrain
  • arousal and attention, wakefulness, being conscious
  • helps filter sensory info, determine which stimuli we should pay attention to
59
Q

midbrain

A
  • uppermost part of the brain stem
  • collection of structures
  • motor control, particularly eye movements and processing of vision and hearing, motivation and reward, downregulation of pain
60
Q

cerebellum

A
  • pons, medulla, and cerebellum makes up hindbrain
  • mini brain hanging off main brain
  • coordination, balance, precise fine movements, accurate timing
  • helps refines movement and synchronization from sensory feedback
  • damage here affects the precision and accuracy of movements, but not movement in general itself
  • first area to be affected by alcohol
61
Q

limbic system

A
  • includes hypothalamus, thalamus, amygdala, hippocampus, and basal ganglia
  • all these located under the wrinkly part of the brain
  • known as the emotional brain
62
Q

hypothalamus

A
  • interface between brain and body
  • maintain body’s internal balance, like regulation of body temp, enough nutrients, thirst, sleep, biological rhythms
  • directs autonomic nervous system and endocrine system with its hormones
  • keeps everything running
  • motivation and reward, receives internal signals from body, integrates that with associated feelings and helps drive behavior
  • hypo = under
63
Q

thalamus

A
  • relay station for all sensory signals (except smell)
  • make sure they go where they need to go
  • regulates alterness and consciousness
    helps tune out outside world while you sleep
  • damage to this area results in blindness, inability to feel other types of sensory stimulation like stroke
  • like synesthesia after stroke
64
Q

amygdala

A
  • role in emotion
  • processing emotional significance of sensory information, producing emotional and motivational output
  • works with hippocampus to create vivid emotional memories
  • responds to positive and negative stimuli
  • damage leads to psychic blindness = normal vision, but visual stimuli lose their emotional significance
65
Q

capgras syndrome

A
  • condition where someone believes that someone close to them has been replaced by an imposter
66
Q

hippocampus

A
  • concerned with memory
  • spatial navigation
  • mental time-travel, imagine future and revisit past memories
67
Q

basal ganglia

A
  • planning, executing and controlling voluntary movement
  • suppression of unwanted movement
  • reward and pleasure
  • damage to this area: rigid, slow movements, tremors,
  • micheal j fox
  • parkinson’s disease
68
Q

cerebral cortex

A
  • outer most layer of the brain, the wrinkly part
  • divided into left and right hemispheres connected by large bundle of nerve fibers (corpus callosum)
  • further divided into five lobes (frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal + insular lobe) FPOT
69
Q

frontal lobe

A
  • front of brain
  • movement planning, command center
  • contains primary motor cortex and prefrontal cortex
70
Q

primary motor cortex

A
  • map of body’s muscles
71
Q

prefrontal cortex

A
  • planning, judgement, decision-making
  • phineas gage damage in this area, the railroad worker, normal in intelligence and speech, but his personality shift
72
Q

frontal lobotomies

A
  • surgical procedure disconnecting prefrontal area from the rest of the brain
  • treatment popular in 1940s and 1950s
  • led to apathy/emotional blunting, inability to plan and organize behavior, impulsive, antisocial behavior
73
Q

parietal lobe

A
  • second part of the cerebral cortex
  • contains primary somatosensory cortex
  • spatial navigation, damage causes us to bump into things
  • pay attention to and locate objects in space
74
Q

primary somatosensory cortex

A
  • in parietal lobe
  • map of body’s skin surface, enabling us to process touch
75
Q

occipital lobe

A
  • third section in FPOT
  • vision, right across from eyes
  • contains primary visual cortex
  • links to temporal and parietal lobes, recognize objects and process their movement
76
Q

primary visual cortex

A
  • necessary for sight
  • input from eyes is interpreted here by responding to basic info about image (shading, edges, color, etc)
77
Q

temporal lobe

A
  • above ears
  • allows you to hear and understand language
  • helps to recognize objects and ppl
  • contains primary auditory cortex and primary olfactory cortex
78
Q

primary olfactory cortex

A
  • in temporal lobe
  • process smell
79
Q

insular lobe

A
  • perceive our inner world
  • perceive the state of internal organs
  • feel heart racing, feel pain, the insular lobe allows you to perceive that
  • contains primary taste cortex
80
Q

primary taste cortex

A
  • in insular lobe
  • allows you to taste things
  • damage: loss of conscious experience of taste
  • stimulation produces sensation of taste
81
Q

primary sensory areas

A
  • each lobe has some sort of sensory area
  • parietal lobe: somatosensory area
  • occipital lobe: visual area
  • temporal lobe: auditory and olfactory areas
    insular lobe: primary taste area
82
Q

association cortex

A
  • integrates incoming info from sensory areas with existing knowledge to produce meaningful experience of the world
  • association = connection
  • ties incoming stimuli to past memories, etc
83
Q

primary somatosensory and motor areas

A
  • organized like a map, organized topographically
  • body parts that are physically close are represented in adjacent areas of cortex
  • amount of cortex space corresponds to amount of fine control or sensory discrimination required, does not match on to the size of the body type, bc the size matches to the degree of the sensitivity or finest the body part is used, more sensitive so more representation in brain
84
Q

symmetrical brain

A
  • nearly every structure of the brain exists in duplicate (right and left portion of cerebellum, thalamus, amygdala, etc)
  • cerebral cortex is also divided in half by deep fissure, left and right hemisphere
85
Q

corpus callosum

A
  • bridge of fibers that connect the two cerebral hemispheres
  • helps them talk to each other, or interhemispheric transfer
86
Q

interhemispheric transfer

A
  • when the two cerebral hemispheres talk to each other
87
Q
A

PSYC 100 (11 decks)

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