Tutorial 07 Flashcards
How many bilinguals are there?
est. 60% of the population is multilingual, 43% speak two languages
What is bilingualism?
• not one definition → depends on a large number of factors and research focus
• level of proficiency (speaking, writing, listening, reading)
• language competence (dominance and balance)
• frequency of use (context, domain, modality)
• number of languages (multilingualism, languages and dialects)
• age of acquisition (simultaneous, sequential, late)
• continuum, high variability across a person’s life span
neurological hot spots of language
• Broca’s area (Inferior frontal gyrus):
speech production
• Wernicke’s area (left superior temporal
gyrus): language comprehension
• arcuate fasciculus: connection between
Wernicke’s area and Broca’s area,
conceptual representations
What did Pitres find out in 1895?
different neuronal circuits within the same brain area
What did the Scoresby-Jackson (1867) patient led to believe?
bilingual patient with severe language loss of only one language
-> different brain areas
What is Lateralisation?
area where primary function occurs
Where is language lateralized?
language is mostly left lateralized
• conflicting results in bilinguals: left lateralized or bilateralized
• modulator of lateralisation: AoA (age of acquisition)
• early bilinguals more bilateralized, late bilinguals more left lateralized
Lateralisation – left hemisphere
Linear reasoning
Filling in forms: letters and numbers
Temporal-order judgements
Lateralization – right hemisphere
Holistic reasoning (metaphors and intonation)
Feelings and intuitions, comprehension of emotional content
Prosody, sentence function
Activation of broca‘s area
AoA -> different areas
Proficiency -> no differences
Broca‘s area – activation L1 vs L2
not localisation of activation but degree of strength of activation differed
stronger activation in L2, mostly in IFC → more effortful, less efficient
Wernicke‘s area activation
• no differences
• semantic task → no differences
• nonsemantic task → differences
Wernicke‘s area – Activation: L1 vs L2: early vs late bilinguals
• low/moderate proficiency → smaller and more distributed activation across hemispheres
• high proficiency → similar activations of L1 and L2
• L2 → more activated areas in late bilinguals than early bilinguals
Language comprehension in bilinguals
• flexible and variable → considerable plasticity in network
• proficiency and exposure to L2 seem to modulate functional mapping more than AoA
production mechanisms may only influence comprehension …
When context is provided
Language selective or nonselective
access?
• research suggests both languages are activated
• in isolation and at all levels of representation
Language production in bilinguals
• potentially parallel activation
• language interference
language-specific and non-specific mechanisms
• cognitive control and inhibition processes more pronounced in low proficient bilinguals
• possibly different mechanisms in highly and less proficient bilinguals
Which brain areas are activated during translation?
activation of anterior cingulate and bilateral subcortical structures (putamen and head of caudate nucleus) during translation
• possibly due to need for greater coordination of mental operations
Bilingual advantage debate
- Advantage has been neither proven or disproven
- Some argues that it enhances cognitive performance some are not
Does having a higher level of cognitive abilities make someone bilingual?
Or
Does using multiple languages train and enhance cognitive abilities?
Possible explanation:
- Complex interplay between genetics, language use, environmental factors and demands, and individual differences
Code-switching
-The practice of alternating between two or more languages in a single conversation or context
- Found in multilingual communities and shaped by cultural, situational, and cognitive factor
3 types of code switching (Poplack, 1980)
1) tag-switching (discourse markers): Mixing languages within a sentence
2) intersentential code-switching: switching between sentences
3) intrasentential code-switching: switching within sentences
Cognitive control and task switching: Contradictory results – positive
- Code-switching requires inhibition of the non-target language and switching to the target language.
- Frequent code-switchers perform better in Stroop and Flanker tasks due to improved inhibitory control
(Yim & Bialystok, 2012)
Stroop Task: Measures inhibition control when participants must ignore a competing stimulus.
Flanker Task: Assesses attention control and conflict resolution.
Cognitive control and task switching: Contradictory results! – negative
- Festman et al. (2010): Frequent switchers showed slower responses in tasks requiring inhibition,
indicating potential cognitive costs
-Increased cognitive load may result from constant engagement with competing linguistic systems.
Working Memory: Contradictory results! – summary
- Many studies suggest that bilingualism provides cognitive benefits, BUT the evidence is not uniformly supportive.
- Factors such as task complexity, population characteristics, and methodological limitations contribute to these mixed findings.
Code-switching: working memory – positive
- Switching between languages relies on working memory to manage competing language systems.
- Enhanced working memory capacity in frequent switchers (Calabria et al., 2015)
- N-Back Task: Tests working memory by requiring participants to track and recall items in a sequence.
Code-switching: working memory – negative
Paap et al. (2015): No bilingual advantage observed in N-Back tasks, suggesting that working memory benefits
may not generalize across all bilinguals
Higher volumes of gray matter in bilinguals in …
in domain-general control areas (e.g., bilateral ACC, dlPFC, IFG, IPL, and precentral gyrus), especially for early bilinguals.
Lower gray matter volumes in bilinguals in …
In (e.g., bilateral PFC, right MTG, left MTG/STG, right postcentral gyrus, bilateral parahippocampal gyrus, left
cerebellum ), highlighting mixed findings.
How does Bilingualism affect gray matter volume?
• Relationships between grey matter and performance differ between bilinguals and monolinguals (e.g., Simon and Flanker tasks).
• Even brief training (3 weeks to 4 months) can rapidly increase grey matter volume in regions such as the left putamen, left IFG pars triangularis, and bilateral IFG pars opercularis.
• Some studies found no differences between bilinguals and monolinguals in gray matter volume.
How is the cortical thickness in bilinguals?
- bilinguals exhibit increased cortical thickness in regions associated with control and language processing (e.g., right ACC, bilateral orbital frontal, temporal, and occipital areas)
- even short term L2 learning (3 weeks to 4 months) enhances cortical thickness in regions such as the right dlPFC, bilateral lFC, left ACCC and right MTG
Surface area in bilinguals
Age-related surface area reductions in bilinguals are less pronounced than in monolinguals in regions such as the left insula and bilateral anterior temporal lobe
Cortical foldings in bilinguals
Bilinguals demonstrate resilience against age-related reductions in gyrification in specific brain areas (e.g. right ACC, posterior cingulate and enthorinal cortex)
Subcortical reshaping in bilinguals
Differences in the shape of structures like the bilateral putamen, bilateral or right thalamus, bilateral or left globus pallidus and right caudate are linked to bilingualism.
Bilinguals with limited immersion experience have also shown reshaping in parts of bilateral caudate compared to monolinguals
Anatomical asymmetry and interhemispheric organization in bilinguals
Bilingualism affects corpus callosum volume and cortical asymmetry, potentially enhancing communication between hemispheres
White matter in bilinguals
• Findings are mixed, with bilinguals showing both higher and lower FA(Fractional Anisotropy) in tracts like the
SLF and IFOF, influenced by factors such as age and language experience.
• Short-term L2 learning enhances white matter integrity below the right IFG pars opercularis and increased
connectivity in the right opercularis-caudate and opercularis-STG/SMG pathways. However, these increases
have decreased one year after training.
• In early cognitive and neural development, bilingual children show distinct white matter microstructure and
greater changes over two years. Simultaneous bilinguals have the highest FA compared to monolinguals and
sequential bilinguals, particularly in pathways connecting the frontal and temporal-occipital lobes.
Emotional advantages/disadvantages of bilingualism
- Slower emotional processing in L2 than in L1.
- Different interpretation of emotional meanings across languages and cultures.
- Influence of language on personal identity.
+ Lower sensitivity to negative words in L2.
+ Greater sensitivity to positive words in L1.
Cognitive advantages/disadvantages of bilingualism
- Increased cognitive load.
- Slower processing in non-dominant language.
- Language switching incurs a cost.
+ Enhances emotional memories recall.
+ Cognitive flexibility and plasticity.
+ Cognitive development, communication skills.
+ Cognitive aging decline.
Sociocultural advantages/disadvantages of bilingualism
- Language loss.
- Discrimination and social exclusion.
- Cultural Identity Confusion or loss.
- Cultural Misunderstandings
+ Social flexibility.
+ Cultural heritage conservation.
+ Improve quality life.
+ Cultural Exchange.
+ Diversity societies.
+ Different interactions among the language we speak.
Educational-career advantages/disadvantages of bilingualism
- Increased cognitive load.
- Limited job prospects.
+ International study
+ Applying for scholarships
+ Job prospects, higher employability and salaries, career development.
