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Biology A level > Transport in animals > Flashcards

Transport in animals Flashcards

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1
Q

5 reasons why most animals require transport systems?

A

The metabolic demands of most multicellular animals are high (require lots of O2 and food and produce a lot of waste), so diffusion over long distances doesn’t provide quantity needed

SA:V volume ratio gets smaller, as organism gets bigger so diffusion distances increase, with less surface area to absorb

Molecules such as hormones or enzymes may be made in one place, but needed in another

Food digested in one organ system but needs to be transported to every cell

Waste products of metabolism need to be removed from cells and transported to excretory organs

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2
Q

What’s mass flow?

A

is the movement of fluids down a pressure or temperature gradient

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3
Q

What do most circulatory systems have in common?

A

They have a liquid transport medium, circulates around system (blood)

Vessels to carry the transport medium

They have a pumping mechanism to move the fluid around the system

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4
Q

What are open circulatory systems?

A

(insects)

Very few vessels to contain the transport medium
Pumped straight from heart into body cavity of animal (the haemocel)

In the haemocel transport medium under low pressure, comes in direct contact with tissues and cells.

This is where exchange takes place between medium and cells, then returns to heart through open-ended vessel

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5
Q

What’s haemolymph?

A

Insect blood, doesn’t carry oxygen or CO2, transports food and nitrogenous waste products and cells involved in fighting disease

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6
Q

What’s a closed circulatory system?

A

Blood remains within vessels
Tissue fluid bathes cells and tissues
Blood higher pressure
Blood transports O2 and CO2

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7
Q

Difference between double and single circulatory system?

A

Single: Heart-Gills-Body-Heart (fish)

Double: Heart-Lungs-Heart-body-Heart (humans)

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8
Q

Features of arteries?

A

Carry blood away from heart (oxygenated unless pulmonary artery)
Small lumen
Wall thick and contains collagen
Wall contains elastic tissue and smooth muscle
Innermost layer is a folded endothelium

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9
Q

Why do arteries contain elastin fibres?

A

Withstand pressure of blood, and stretch (limits maintained by collagen), to take larger blood volume. Then recoil in between contractions, allowing continuous flow of blood

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10
Q

Why is lining of artery (endothelium) smooth?

A

Blood easily flows over it

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11
Q

What does smooth muscle do in circulation?

A

Contracts or relaxes, which changes the size of lumen

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12
Q

What does collagen do in circulation?

A

Provides structural support

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13
Q

What are arterioles?

A

Link arteries and capillaries, contain more smooth muscle than elastin as less pulse surge, can constrict and dilate the lumen to control flow into organs

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14
Q

Features of veins?

A

Carry blood back to heart, only oxygenated in pulmonary vein
Large lumen
Thinner layers of elastic tissue collagen and smooth muscle
Contain valves
Thin walls
Low pressure

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15
Q

What do valves do?

A

Prevent backflow of blood

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16
Q

Features of capillaries?

A

Diameter 10um
Capillary wall= single layer of flattened endothelial cells
Lumen very narrow
Gaps in endothelial cells can be large, except in cns

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17
Q

Why is the capillary wall single celled?

A

Reduces diffusion distance for exchange of materials between blood and cells

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18
Q

Why do capillaries have small lumens?

A

So red blood cells pushed up against capillary wall, reducing diffusion distance

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19
Q

What is blood made up of?

A

Plasma- yellow fluid that carries the dissolved substances
Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
White blood cells ( phagocytes)
Platelets for blood clotting

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20
Q

Functions of blood?

A

Gives oxygen to cells, takes CO2 from them
Takes digested food molecules from small intestine to cells
Nitrogenous waste products from cells to excretory organs
Hormones
Platelets to damaged areas
Cells and antibodies in immune response

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21
Q

What does plasma contain?

A 
Glucose
Amino acids
Mineral ions
Hormones
Large plasma proteins
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22
Q

What substance dissolved in plasma can’t pass through capillary walls

A

Large plasma proteins

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23
Q

Names of plasma proteins?

A

Albumin, fibrinogen

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24
Q

What do plasma proteins do to the blood within the capillaries?

A

Give it a low water potential, meaning water from surrounding fluid moves into the blood

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25
Q

What is the oncotic pressure of water to move into the blood in capillaries?

A

-3.3kPa

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26
Q

What occurs at arterial end of capillaries?

A

There’s a high hydrostatic pressure due to surge of blood (4.6kPa), which is higher than 3.3kPa, so the net movement of fluid is out of the capillary via osmosis to form tissue fluid

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27
Q

What is tissue fluid?

A

Plasma, but without red blood cells and plasma proteins

28
Q

What occurs at venous end of capillary?

A

low hydrostatic pressure 2.3 kPa, and oncotic pressure is still 3.3kPa, meaning fluid moves back into capillary via osmosis

29
Q

Formation of lymph?

A

Not all tissue fluid returns back to venous capillary end of the tissue bed (10%), so is drained away into lymphatic system (where it’s known as lymph0

This is a collection of vessels similar to capillaries, that carry excess tissue fluid and train it into the blood system at the chest cavity

30
Q

What does lymph compose of?

A

Similar to plasma and tissue fluid, but contains fatty acids, absorbed from small intestine

31
Q

What are lymph nodes?

A

Along the lymph vessel, and lymphocytes build up there when required and produce antibodies, which then are passed into the blood to fight infection

They can also intercept bacteria

32
Q

Order of blood vessels in circulation?

A

Aorta, arteries arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins vena cava

33
Q

3 adaptations which allow blood to return to heart?

A

Veins have one way valves, so prevent backflow

Run between big active muscles, and when muscles squeeze forces blood back to heart

Breathing movements of heart act as pump, pressure changes and squeezing actions move blood in veins of the chest and abdomen to the heart

34
Q

What’s vasodilation?

A

Dilation of blood vessels, reduces blood pressure and releases heat

35
Q

What’s vasoconstriction?

A

constriction of blood vessels, increasing blood pressure, and reduces heat loss

36
Q

What’s pulmonary circulation?

A

Takes blood to lungs to get O2 then returns it to the heart

37
Q

What’s systemic circulation?

A

Takes blood with O2 to muscles, then returns deoxygenated blood back to heart

38
Q

Describe the journey of blood through the heart?

A

Deoxygenated blood flows into the right side of the heart via the vena cava

Enters right atrium, then moves into right ventricle through tricuspid valve

Moves out of right ventricle into pulmonary artery through the semilunar valve.

Returns from the lungs with oxygenated blood, and enters the left atrium via pulmonary vein.

Moves into left ventricle through mitrial valve

Leaves left ventricle into aorta and the rest of the body through a semi lunar valve

39
Q

What are erythrocytes?

A

Red blood cells

40
Q

How are erythrocytes adapted to carry oxygen?

A

Bioconcave shape, meaning larger surface area for diffusion of gasses, and allows them to pass though narrow capillaries

Form in red bone marrow, and have no nuclei increasing space for haemoglobin

41
Q

What allows erythrocytes to carry oxygen?

A

Haemoglobin

42
Q

What is haemoglobin?

A

Large globular conjugated protein

Made up of 4 peptide chains

Each peptide chain containing a iron containing haem prosthetic group

Each haem molecule can bind up to 4 oxygen molecules

43
Q

Equation for oxygen loosely binding to haemoglobin?

A

Hb + 4O2 = Hb(O2)4 (oxyhaemoglobin)

44
Q

What is positive cooperativity?

A

After the first O2 molecule binds to haem, it becomes easier for the rest of the O2 molecules to bind as the hb molecule changes shape (conformational change)

Works in the same way for removing O2

45
Q

Describe oxygen dissociation curve?

A 
X= partial pressure of oxygen
Y= saturation of haemoglobin

Sigmodal shape, as hard for 1st O2 to bind, then easier for 2nd and 3rd (conformational change, and positive cooperativity), and then harder for last one to bind

46
Q

What’s the bohr effect?

A

As the partial pressure of Carbon dioxide rises, haemoglobin gives up oxygen more easily

47
Q

Why is the Bohr effect important?

A

Oxygen supplied to highly active tissues which are producing a lot of CO2

In the lungs where proportion of CO2 is low, oxygen binds to haemoglobin

48
Q

Why does fetal haemoglobin have a higher affinity for Oxygen than adult haemoglobin?

A

Fetus requires mother for Oxygen

Oxygenated blood from the mother runs close to the deoxygenated fetal blood in the placenta, so if they had the same oxygen affinity none would be transferred to fetal blood

49
Q

3 ways carbon dioxide is transported from the tissues to the lungs?

A

5% dissolved in plasma
10-20% combined with amino groups in polypeptide chains to form carbaminohaemoglobin
75-85% converted into Hydrogen carbonate ions (H2CO3 -) in the cytoplasum of red blood cells

50
Q

Describe the process of Carbon Dioxide being converted into Hydrogen carbonate?

A

CO2 and water react to form carbonic acid, helped by enzyme carbonic anhydrase

Carbonic acid then dissociates into H+ ions and HCO3 (-) ions

HCO3 (-) ions move out of erythrocytes via diffusion, and Cl- ions move into the cell, maintaining electrical balance= the chloride shift

By removing CO2 and converting it into HCO3, maintains steep concentration gradient for more CO2 to diffuse in

When erythrocytes reach lungs carbonic anhydrase catalyses reverse reaction Carbonic acid to water and CO2. HCO3 (-) ions move back into cell and react with H+ ions to form more carbonic acid

CO2 and Cl- ions diffuse out of cell

Haemoglobin also plays role in process, it acts as a pH buffer, nu accepting free H+ ions to form haemoglobinic acid

51
Q

How is high concentration gradient maintained when O2 moves into red blood cells from alveoli?

A

Steep concentration gradients as high O2 in alveoli, and high CO2 in cells
Good blood supply, so oxygen quickly taken away maintaining steep concentration gradient

52
Q

What is the heart made up of?

A

Cardiac muscle, supplied by coronary arteries

53
Q

What is heart surrounded by to prevent it swell with blood?

A

Inelastic pericardial membranes

54
Q

Why is muscular wall on left side of heart much thicker than on right?

A

Has to pump blood around whole body, not just to lungs

55
Q

What events are in the cardiac cycle?

A

Diastole: Heart relaxes. The Atria then the ventricles fill with blood.
Systole: Atria contract closely followed by ventricles. Pressure inside heart increases dramatically and blood is forced out of pulmonary artery and Aorta

56
Q

Describe the heart pressure graph?

A

When ventricle pressure gets higher than atrial, atrioventricular valve closes

When ventricle pressure gets higher than aorta, semi lunar valve opens

Opposite happens when ventricle pressure drops beneath both of them again

57
Q

What do the heart sounds mark?

A

Opening of atrioventricular valves, and closing of semilunar valves

58
Q

What does cardiac muscle being myogenic mean?

A

Has it’s own bpm (70)

59
Q

How is rhythm of heart maintained?

A

Sino- atrial node sends electrical excitation causing atria to contract, initiating heartbeat

Layer of non conducting tissue prevents it directly reaching ventricles

Electrical activity picked up by atrio-ventricular node. There’s a slight delay before stimulating bundle of his, a bundle of conducting tissue which penetrates through the septum and ventricles

Bundle of his branches out to the bottom of the heart, and start contractions of ventricles from the bottom

60
Q

What can Electrocardiograms be used for?

A

Monitoring electrical activity of heart

61
Q

What’s tachycardia?

A

When heartbeat is very rapid higher than 100bom

62
Q

What’s Bradycardia?

A

When heart rate is very slow bellow 60bpm

63
Q

What’s ectopic heartbeat?

A

Extra heart beats that out of the normal rhythm

64
Q

What’s atrial fibrillation?

A

Rapid electrical impulses generated in the atria. Contract up to 400 times a min, but not properly, ventricles only occasionly contract

65
Q

Septum location and purpose?

A

Down centre of heart, separates oxygenated and deoxygenated blood

Biology A level (19 decks)

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