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Biology A Level > Transport In Animals :). > Flashcards

Transport In Animals :). Flashcards

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1
Q

Why can’t multicellular organisms diffuse everything they need in?

A

Relatively big
Low surface area to volume ratio
Higher metabolic rate

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2
Q

How does lots of multicellular organisms are very active mean they need a transport system more?

A

Large number of cells that are all respiring quickly so need constant rapid supply of glucose and oxygen

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3
Q

What do multicellular organisms need to ensure every cell has a good blood supply?

A

Transport system

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4
Q

What is the transport system in mammals?

A

The circularity system which uses blood to carry glucose and oxygen around the body as well as hormones, antibodies and waste. Of

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5
Q

Name the types of circularity systems?

A

Single- fish
Double-mammals
Open- some invertebrates
Closed- All vertebrates

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6
Q

How many times does heart pass through the heart in single and double?

A

Single- goes through once

Double- goes through twice

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7
Q

How does a fish heart pump?

A

To the gills and then on through rest of body in single circuit

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8
Q

How does a mammal heart pump?

A

Heart divided down middle so like 2 hearts joined together
Right side to lungs
From lungs travels to left side of heart which pumps it to rest of body
Blood returns to heart enters right side

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9
Q

What’s the loop in our circularity system going to the lungs called?

A

Pulmonary system

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10
Q

What’s the loop that goes to the rest of the body called?

A

Systemic

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11
Q

Give an advantage of the mammalian heart?

A

Can give blood extra push between lungs and rest of body.

Makes blood travel faster so oxygen is delivered to the tissues more quickly.

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12
Q

What’s an open circularity system?

A

Blood isn’t enclosed in blood vessels all time

Flows through body cavity.

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13
Q

How is a open circularity heart organised?

A

Segmented Heart contracts in a wave starting from back pumping blood in single main artery
Artery opens up into body cavity
Blood flows around insects organs gradually making way back through valves

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14
Q

What does the insect circularity system provide it with?

A

Nutrients

Hormones

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15
Q

What doesn’t the insect circularity system provide it with?

A

Oxygen

Oxygen is provided through tracheal system

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16
Q

How do single-celled organisms get substances needed?

A

Diffusion across outer membrane

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17
Q

Artery

A

Carry blood from heart
Thick and muscular elastic walls to stretch and recoil as heart beats helps maintain high pressure
Inner endothelium folded allowing artery to expand helps maintain high pressure
Artery carry oxygenated blood except pulmonary artery

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18
Q

Arterioles

A

Artery branches into Arterioles
Much smaller than arteries
Have layer of smooth tissue less elastic tissue
Smooth muscle allows them to expand/contract controlling amount of blood following to tissues

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19
Q

Capillaries

A

Smallest blood vessels
Substances like glucose and oxygen are exchanged between cells and capillaries
Adapted for efficient diffusion
Walls only one cell thick

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20
Q

Venule

A

Very thin walls contain muscle cells

Join together to form veins

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21
Q

Veins

A

Take blood back to heart under low pressure
Very little elastic/ muscle tissue
Contain valves stop blood flowing backwards
Blood flowed through vein helped by contractions of body lurked surrounding them
Carry deoxygenated blood except pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood to heart from lungs

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22
Q

Tissue fluid

A

Fluid surrounds cells in tissue

Made from substances that leave blood plasma: oxygen, water and nutrients

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23
Q

What doesn’t tissue fluid contain that blood does?

A

Doesn’t contain red blood cells or big proteins because they’re too large to be pushed out through the capillary walls

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24
Q

Cells take in oxygen and nutrients from and what do they release?

A

From tissue fluid and release metabolic waste into it

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25
Q

What happens in capillary beds?

A

Substances move out of the capillaries into tissue fluid by pressure filtration

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26
Q

What are capillary beds?

A

The network of capillaries in an area of tissue

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27
Q

What happens at the start of the capillary bed nearest the arteries?

A

The hydrostatic (liquid) pressure inside the capillaries is greater than the hydrostatic pressure in the tissue fluid. The difference in hydrostatic pressure forces fluid out of the capillaries and into the spaces around the cells, forming tissue fluid

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28
Q

What happens as fluid leaves the capillary bed?

A

The hydrostatic pressure reduced in the capillaries so the hydrostatic pressure is much lower at the end of the capillary bed that’s nearest to the Venules

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29
Q

What’s the other type of pressure involved in pressure filtration?

A

Oncotic pressure

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30
Q

How is oncotic pressure generated?

A

By plasma proteins present in the capillaries which lower the water potential

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31
Q

What happens at Venules end of the capillary bed?

A

The water potential in the capillaries is lower than the water potential in and the high oncotic pressure. Meaning some water re-enters the capillaries from the tissue fluid at the venule end by osmosis

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32
Q

Does all the tissue fluid re-enter the capillaries at the venule end of the capillary bed?

A

No some excess fluid is left over.

Extra fluid eventually gets returned to blood through lymphatic system

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33
Q

What’s the lymphatic system?

A

A kind of drainage system made up of lymph vessels

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34
Q

Smallest lymph vessels?

A

Lymph capillaries

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35
Q

Where does excess tissue fluid go?

A

It passes into lymph vessels

Once inside its called lymph

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36
Q

What do valves in the lymph vessels do?

A

Stop the lymph going backwards

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37
Q

What does lymph do?

A

Gradually move towards the main lymph vessels in the thorax. Here it is returned to the blood near the heart

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38
Q

What’s the thorax?

A

The chest cavity

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39
Q

Red blood cells

Blood, tissue fluid, lymph

A

Blood has them
Tissue fluid doesn’t
Lymph doesn’t

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40
Q

Comment on red blood cells?

A

Red blood cells too big to get through capillary walks into tissue fluid

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41
Q

White blood cells

Blood, tissue fluid, lymph

A

Blood-yes
Tissue fluid-very few
Lymph-yes

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42
Q

White blood cell comment?

A

Most white blood cells are in the lymph system.

Only enter tissue fluid when there’s an infection

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43
Q

Platelets

Blood, tissue fluid, lymph

A

Blood-yes
Tissue fluid-no
Lymph-no

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44
Q

Protein

Blood, tissue fluid, lymph

A

Blood- yes
Tissue fluid-very few
Lymph-only antibodies

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45
Q

Comment on platelets

A

Only present in tissue fluid if capillaries are damaged

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46
Q

Proteins comment

A

Most plasma proteins are too big to get through capillary walls

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47
Q

Water

Blood tissue fluid lymph

A

Yes yes yes

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48
Q

Dissolved solutes

Blood lymph tissue fluid

A

Yes yes yes

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49
Q

Comment on water

A

Tissue fluid and lymph have higher water potential than blood

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50
Q

Dissolved solutes comment

A

Solutes e.g. Salt can move freely between blood, tissue fluid and lymph

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51
Q

What goes the right side and the left side of the heart pump

A

The right side of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs
Left side pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body

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52
Q

What do the atrioventricular valves link?

A

The atria to the ventricles

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53
Q

What do the semi-lunar valves link?

A

The ventricles to the pulmonary artery and aorta

54
Q

What do all the valves in the heart do?

A

Stop blood flowing the wrong way

55
Q

How do valves work

A

Valves only open one way whether open or closed depends on relative pressure of heart chambers
If Higher pressure behind a valve its forced open
If higher pressure in front of valve its forces shut

56
Q

Equipment needed to carry out a heart dissection?

A 
Pig's or cow's heart
Dissecting tray
Scalpel 
Apron 
Lab gloves
57
Q

What are two things you should look at during a heart dissection?

A

External examination

Internal examination

58
Q

External examination of heart

A

Look at outside of heart and try to identify four main vessels attached to it
Feel inside vessels to help you.
Arteries are thick and rubbery whereas veins are much thinner
Identify right and left atria and right and left ventricles and coronary arteries. Draw sketch of outside of heart with labels

59
Q

Internal examination

A

Cut along to look inside each ventricle. Measure and record thickness of ventricle walls and note any differences between them.
Cut open atria and look inside them. Note if atria are thicker or thinner than ventricle walls.
Find atrioventricular valves followed by semi-lunar valves. Look at valve structure.
Draw a sketch of valves and inside of ventricles and atria

60
Q

Describe left ventricle?

A

Thicker and more muscular than right to push blood all around the body.

61
Q

Describe ventricles?

A

Have thicker walls than atria because they have to push blood out of the heart

62
Q

What is the cardiac cycle?

A

An ongoing sequence of contractions and relaxation of atria and ventricles that keeps blood continuously circulating round the body.

63
Q

What happens to volumes of atria and ventricles in the cardiac cycle?

A

They change as they contract and relax altering the pressure in each chamber causing the valves to open and close directing blood flow through the heart

64
Q

Three stages of cardiac cycle?

A

Ventricles relax, atria contract
Ventricles contract, atria relax
Ventricles relax atria relax

65
Q

Explain ventricles relax, atria contract

A

Ventricles relaxed, atria contract decreasing their volume and increasing their pressure pushing blood into ventricles through atrioventricular valves. Slightly increasing ventricular pressure and volume as ventricles recurve ejected blood from contracting atria

66
Q

Ventricles contract, atria relax

A

Atria relax, ventricles contract decreasing volume increasing pressure. Pressure becomes higher in ventricles than atria forcing atrioventricular valves shut to prevent black-flow. High pressure in ventricles open semi-lunar valves. Blood is forced out into pulmonary artery and aorta

67
Q

Ventricles relax atria relax

A

Both ventricles and atria relax. Higher pressure in pulmonary artery and aorta cause semi-lunar valve to close preventing back-flow. Atria fill with blood increasing pressure due to higher pressure in vena cava and pulmonary vein. As ventricles continue to relax their pressure falls below pressure in atria. Atrioventricular valves to open and blood flow passively into ventricles from atria. Atria contacts and process begins again

68
Q

Atria contract valves?

A

Semi-lunar valves closed

Atrioventricular valves open

69
Q

Ventricles contract?

A

Semi-lunar valves forced open

Atrioventricular valves forced closed

70
Q

Atria and ventricles relax

A

Semi-lunar valves close

Atrioventricular valves forced open

71
Q

What sound does a heart make?

A

Lub-dub

72
Q

What is the lub sound made by?

A

Atrioventricular valves closing

73
Q

What is the dub sound made by?

A

Semi-lunar valves closing

74
Q

Cardiac muscle is special why?

A

Myogenic
Can contact and relax without receiving signals from nerves,
Pattern of contraction controls regular heartbeat

75
Q

Electrical signals of heart?

A

Sino-atrial node (SAN) send electrical valves out to atrial walls.
Right and left atria contact at same time
Atrioventricular node (AVN) send electrical activity to bundle of his which leads to purkyne tissue carrying signal to ventricles causing them to contract simultaneously from bottom up

76
Q

Where is sino-atrial node?

A

In wall of right atrium

77
Q

What is the sino-atrial node like?

A

A pacemaker

Sets rhythm of heartbeat by sending out regular waves of electrical activity to atrial walls

78
Q

What stops the electrical signal travelling from the atria straight to the ventricles?

A

A non-conducting collagen tissue preventing waves of electrical activity from being passed directly from atria to the ventricles

79
Q

What is the AVN responsible for?

A

Passing waves of electrical activity in to bundle of his but there’s a slight delay before the AVN reacts to make sure the ventricles contract after the atria have emptied

80
Q

What are the bundle of his ?

A

Group of muscular fibres responsible for conducting the waves of electrical activity the finer fibres

81
Q

What can a electrocardiograph do?

A

Record the electrical activity of the heart

82
Q

How can a doctor check someone’s heart function?

A

Using an electrocardiograph

83
Q

How does a electrocardiograph work?

A

Machine records electrical activity of the heart
Heart muscle depolarises (loses electrical charge)
When contracts and repolarises (regains charge) when it relaxes. An electrocardiograph records these changes in electrical charge using electrodes placed in the chest

84
Q

What does a electrocardiograph produce?

A

A traced called an electrocardiogram or ECG

85
Q

What’s the P wave caused by?

A

Contraction (depolarisation) of the atria

86
Q

QRS complex

A

Caused by contractions (depolarisation) of the ventricles

87
Q

T wave caused by

A

Relaxation (depolarisation of the ventricles)

88
Q

What does the height of the wave indicate?

A

How much electrical charge is passing through the heart

A bigger wave means more electrical charge so (P and R waves) a bigger wave means a stronger contraction

89
Q

What do doctors do to help them diagnose any heart problem?

A

Compare patients ECG with a normal trace

90
Q

Too fast!!!!

A

Tachycardia
Heartbeat is too fast around 120 beats per minute
tachycardia
Okay for exercise not for rest shoes heart isn’t pumping blood efficiently
Tachycardia

91
Q

Slooooow

A

Bradycardia
Heartbeat can be too slow
Below 60 beats per minutes at rest
Bradycardia

92
Q

Ectopic heartbeat?

A

Extra heartbeat
Can be caused by earlier contraction of atria than previous heartbeats
Can be caused by early contraction of ventricles too
Occasional ectopic heartbeats in a healthy person don’t cause a problem

93
Q

What’s fibrillation

A

Really irregular heartbeat
Atria or ventricles completely lose their rhythm and stop contracting properly
Can result in anything from chest pain and fainting to lack of pulse and death

94
Q

What do red blood cells contain?

A

Haemoglobin

95
Q

Haemoglobin describe

A

Large protein with quaternary structure
Made from more than one polypeptide chain
Each chain had haem group containing iron giving haemoglobin it’s red colour

96
Q

Explain haemoglobin’s and oxygen relationship?

A

Haemoglobin has a high affinity for oxygen-each molecule can carry four oxygen molecules

97
Q

What do oxygen and haemoglobin do together in the lungs?

A

Join to form oxyhaemoglobin

98
Q

Equation for oxyhaemoglobin production

A

Hb+4O2 HbO8

Haemoglobin+ oxygenoxyhaemoglobin

99
Q

What is oxygen and haemoglobin making haemoglobin?

A

Reversible reaction

When oxygen leaves oxyhaemoglobin (dissociates from it) near the body cells, it turns back to haemoglobin

100
Q

Affinity for oxygen?

A

Tendency to combine with oxygen

101
Q

What does haemoglobin saturation depend on?

A

The partial pressure of oxygen

102
Q

What is the partial pressure of oxygen (pO2)?

A

A measure of oxygen concentration.

103
Q

Relationship between partial pressure and oxygen concentration?

A

The greater the concentration of dissolved oxygen in cells, the higher the partial pressure

104
Q

What is the partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO2)?

A

Measure of concentration of CO2 in a cell

105
Q

What does haemoglobin’s affinity for oxygen vary depending on?

A

The partial pressure of oxygen

106
Q

What does oxygen do when there’s high pO2?

A

Load onto haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin

107
Q

What does oxygen to when there’s low pO2?

A

Oxyhaemoglobin unloads its oxygen where there’s a lower pO2

108
Q

Where does oxygen enter and what happens as a result?

A

Oxygen enters blood capillaries at the alveoli in the lungs.
Alveoli have a high pO2 so oxygen load onto haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin

109
Q

What happens when cell respire?

A

They use up energy lowering pO2. Red blood cells deliver oxyhaemoglobin to respiring tissues where it unloads its oxygen.

110
Q

When haemoglobin has unloaded its oxygen where does it go?

A

Returns to lungs to pick up more oxygen

111
Q

What does an oxygen dissociation curve show?

A

How saturated the haemoglobin is with oxygen at any given partial pressure

112
Q

What does 100% saturation mean?

A

Every haemoglobin molecule is carrying the maximum of 4 molecules of oxygen

113
Q

0% saturation means?

A

Means none of the haemoglobin molecule are carrying any oxygen

114
Q

Where pO2 is high (in lungs)?

A

Haemoglobin has a high affinity for oxygen (will readily combine with oxygen) so has high saturation of oxygen

115
Q

Where pO2 is low (respiring tissues)?

A

Haemoglobin has a low affinity for oxygen meaning it releases oxygen rather than combine it
It’s why it has a low saturation of oxygen

116
Q

Why is the dissociation curve S shaped?

A 
When haemoglobin (Hb) combine with the first O2 molecule its shape alters making it easier for the other molecules to join 
As Hb starts become more saturated it gets harder for more oxygen to join.
117
Q

What’s the dissociation curve made up of?

A

A steep bit in the middle where it’s easy for oxygen to join and shallow bits at each end where’s its hard.
When curve is steep, a small change in pO2 causes a big change in the amount of oxygen carried by the Hb

118
Q

Adult haemoglobin fetal haemoglobin affinities?

A

Different affinities.
Fetal haemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen (fetus’s blood is better at absorbing oxygen than mother’s blood) at same partial pressure for oxygen.

119
Q

Why does it matter that fetal haemoglobin has a higher affinity than adult haemoglobin?

A

Fetus gets oxygen from mothers blood across the placenta
By the time, the mothers blood reached the placenta its oxygen saturation has decreased.
For fetus to get enough oxygen to survive its own haemoglobin has to have a higher affinity for oxygen.
If haemoglobin had same affinity for oxygen as adult haemoglobin its blood wouldn’t be saturated enough.

120
Q

When would haemoglobin be more readily give up oxygen?

A

At higher partial pressures of carbon dioxide pCO2

121
Q

What’s is the body cunning way of getting more oxygen to cells during activity?

A

When cells respire they produce carbon dioxide which raises pCO2 increasing the rate of oxygen unloading. Reason for this is linked to how CO2 affects blood pH.

122
Q

Where does most of the CO2 from respiring tissues go?

A

It diffuses into red blood cells

123
Q

What does CO2 do when it’s diffused into red blood cells?

A

React with water to form carbonic acid catalyses by enzyme anhydrase

124
Q

What does the rest of the CO2 do?

A

Around 10% bonds directly to haemoglobin and is carried back to the lungs

125
Q

What does the carbonic acid formed do?

A

Dissociate to give hydrogen ions (H+) ions and hydrogencarbonate (HCO3-) ions

126
Q

What does the increase in H+ ions do?

A

Causes oxyhaemoglobin to unload its oxygen so haemoglobin can take up H+ ions forming haemoglobinic acid
Process also stops hydrogen ions from increasing the cell’s acidity

127
Q

What do the HCO3- ions do?

A

Diffuse out of the red blood cells and are transported in the blood plasma

128
Q

What happens to compensate the loss of HCO3- ions from the red blood cells?

A

Chloride ions (Cl-) diffuse into red blood cells (chloride shift) and prevents any changes in pH that could affect the cells

129
Q

When the blood reaches the lungs what happens?

A

Low pCO2 causes some of HCO3- and H+ ions to recombine into CO2 and water
CO2 then diffuses into alveoli and is breathed out

130
Q

What happens in the bone effect if the carbon dioxide level decreases?

A

The dissociation curve shifts right showing more oxygen is released from blood (because lower saturation of haemoglobin with O2, the more O2 is released) Bohr effect

Biology A Level (26 decks)

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