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Biology A Level > Disease And The Immune .System :) > Flashcards

Disease And The Immune .System :) Flashcards

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1
Q

What organisms can get diseases?

A

Both plants and animals

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2
Q

What is a pathogen?

A

An organism that causes disease

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3
Q

What types of pathogens are there?

A

Bacteria
Viruses
Fungi
Protoctista

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4
Q

What is protoctista?

A

A type of single-celled eukaryotic organism

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5
Q

What are communicable diseases?

A

Diseases that spread between organisms

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6
Q

What diseases do you need to know about?

A

Tuberculosis, bacterial meningitis, ring rot, HIV/AID’s/ influenza/ tobacco mosaic virus, black Sigatoka, ringworm, athlete’s foot, potato/ tomato late blight/ malaria

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7
Q

What is mostly affected by tuberculosis?

A

Animals, typically humans and cattle

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8
Q

What causes tuberculosis?

A

Bacterium

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9
Q

What is mostly affected by bacterial meningitis?

A

Humans

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10
Q

What causes bacterial meningitis?

A

Bacterium

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11
Q

Who is mostly affected by ring rot?

A

Potatoes, tomatoes

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12
Q

What causes ring rot?

A

Bacterium

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13
Q

What causes HIV/AID’s?

A

Virus

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14
Q

Who is mostly affected by HIV/AID’s?

A

Humans

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15
Q

Who is mostly affected by influzena?

A

Animals, including humans

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16
Q

What causes influenza?

A

Virus

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17
Q

What causes tobacco mosaic virus?

A

Virus

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18
Q

Who is mostly affected by tobacco mosaic virus?

A

Plants

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19
Q

Who is mostly affected by black sigatoka?

A

Banana plants

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20
Q

What causes black Sigatoka?

A

Fungus

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21
Q

What causes athlete’s foot?

A

Fungus

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22
Q

Who is mostly affected by athlete’s foot?

A

Humans

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23
Q

Who is mostly affected by potato/ tomato late blight?

A

Potatoes/ tomatoes

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24
Q

What causes potato/ tomato late blight?

A

Protoctist

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25
Q

Who is mostly affected by malaria?

A

Animals, including humans

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26
Q

What causes malaria?

A

Protoctist

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27
Q

What is a disease?

A

A condition that impairs normal functioning of an organism

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28
Q

What is direct transmission?

A

When a disease is transmitted directly from one organism to another

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29
Q

How can direct transmission happen?

A 
Droplet infection (coughing or sneezing tiny droplets of mucus or saliva directly into someone. 
Sexual intercourse
Touching an infected organism
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30
Q

How is HIV transmitted?

A

Directly between humans via sexual intercourse

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31
Q

How can athlete’s foot be spread?

A

Via touching

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32
Q

What is indirect transmission?

A

When a disease is transmitted from one organism to another via an intermediate

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33
Q

Name some indirect transmission forms?

A

Air
Water
Food
Another organism (vector)

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34
Q

How is potato/tomato late blight spread?

A

When spores are carried between plants- first in the air, then in water

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35
Q

How is malaria spread?

A

Between humans and other animals via mosquitoes insects (vector) that feed on blood

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36
Q

Do mosquitoes cause malaria?

A

No just spread the protoctista that cause it

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37
Q

What three things affect disease transmission?

A

Living conditions
Climate
Social factors

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38
Q

What type of living conditions increases transmission of many communicable diseases?

A

Overcrowded living conditions

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39
Q

Give an example of when overcrowded living conditions increase transmission of a communicable disease? Is

A

TB spread directly via droplet infection and indirectly because bacteria can remain in air for long periods of time and infect new people.

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40
Q

What happens to risk of TB infection in overcrowded areas?

A

It increases

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41
Q

Give a plant example of when climate affects infection of disease?

A

Potato/ tomato late blight is especially common during wet summers because spores need water to spread.

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42
Q

Give a animal example of when climate affects infection of disease?

A

Malaria is most common in tropical countries which are humid and hot because ideal conditions for mosquitoes (vector) to breed

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43
Q

In humans what also can increase transmission of communicable diseases?

A

Social factors

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44
Q

Give an example of when social factors can increase transmission of communicable diseases?

A

The risk of catching HIV is high in places with limited access to: good health care, good health education

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45
Q

How can limited access to good healthcare increase risk of HIV?

A

People are less likely to be diagnosed and treated for HIV and the mort effective anti-HIV drugs are less available do virus more likely to be passed on to others

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46
Q

How can limited access to good health education increase risk of HIV?

A

You can’t inform people about how HIV is transmitted and how it can be avoided such as safe-sex like using condoms

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47
Q

What are the two types of defences plants have?

A

Physical and chemical

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48
Q

Name three physical defences of plants?

A

Waxy cuticle
Cell wall
Callose

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49
Q

How is a waxy cuticle a physical defence for a plant?

A

Provides physical barrier against pathogen entry
May also stop water collecting on leaf reducing risk of infection by pathogen transferred between plant and water.
Most plant leaves and stems have them

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50
Q

How is a cell wall a physical plant defence?

A

Plant cells are surrounded by cell walls forming physical barrier against pathogens that make it past the waxy cuticle

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51
Q

What is callose?

A

A polysaccharide produced by plants.

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52
Q

What happens to callose during times of stress?

A

Gets deposited between plant cell walls and plasma membrane

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53
Q

What’s a time of stress?

A

Pathogen invasion

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54
Q

How does callose help as a physical defence?

A

Callose desposition may make it harder for pathogens to enter cells. Callose deposition at plasmodesmata may limit spread of viruses between cells.

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55
Q

What else other than physical defences do they rely on?

A

Chemical defences

Produce antimicrobials chemicals which kill pathogens or inhibit growth.

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56
Q

Name two chemicals plants produce as chemical defence?

A

Saponins

Phytialexins

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57
Q

What do saponins do?

A

May destroy cell membranes of fungi and other pathogens

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58
Q

What do phytoalexins do?

A

Inhibit growth of fungi and other pathogens

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59
Q

What are other chemicals by plants for insects?

A

Toxic reducing amount of insect-feeding on plants reducing risk of infection by plant viruses carried by insect vectors

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60
Q

What do pathogens need to do to cause disease?

A

Enter an organism

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61
Q

What does pathogens needing to enter an organism to cause disease mean most animals including have?

A

A range of primary, non-specific defences to help prevent this from happening

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62
Q

Name 6 primary non-specific defences in animals?

A

Skin, mucous membranes, blood clotting, inflammation, wound repair and expulsions reflexes

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63
Q

How is skin a primary non-specific defence?

A

Acts as physical carrier blocking pathogens from entering the body
Acts as chemical barrier by producing antimicrobial chemicals inhibiting growth of pathogens and can lower pH

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64
Q

How is mucous membranes a primary non-specific defence?

A

Protect body openings that are exposed to environment.

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65
Q

What do some membranes secrete?

A

Mucus

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66
Q

What is mucus?

A

A sticky substance that traps pathogens and contains antimicrobial enzymes

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67
Q

What are some body openings exposed to the environment?

A 
Mouth 
Nostrils 
Ears 
Genitals
Anus
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68
Q

What is a blood clot?

A

A mesh of protein (fibrin) fibres

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69
Q

How is blood clotting a primary non-specific defence?

A

Plugs wounds to prevent pathogen entry and blood loss

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70
Q

How are blood clots formed?

A

By a series of chemical reactions that take place when platelets are exposed to damaged blood vessels

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71
Q

What are platelets?

A

Fragments of cells in the blood

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72
Q

What are the signs of inflammation include?

A

Swelling, pain, heat and redness

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73
Q

What is inflammation triggered by?

A

Tissue damage

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74
Q

How does tissue damage trigger inflammination?

A

Damaged tissue releases molecules increasing permeability of blood vessels so they start to leak fluid to surrounding areas.

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75
Q

What does the leaking fluids to surroundings area do?

A

Swelling
Helps to isolate any pathogens
Cause vasodilation

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76
Q

What does vasodilation lead to?

A

Widening of the blood vessels increasing blood flow to affected area making areas got and being white blood cells to area fight off any pathogens present.

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77
Q

What is the skin able to do in event of injury?

A

Repair itself and reform a barrier against pathogen entry.

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78
Q

How is skin repaired?

A

Surface repaired by outer layer of skin cells dividing and migrating to edges of wound. Skin below wound then contacts to bring edged of wound closer together.

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79
Q

What is skin repaired with?

A

Collagen fibres

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80
Q

What causes a scar?

A

Too many collagen fibres

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81
Q

Name two repulsive reflexes?

A

Coughing and sneezing

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82
Q

When does a sneeze happen?

A

When mucous membranes in the nostrils are irritated by things such as dust or dirt.

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83
Q

What a cough stem from?

A

Irritating in the respiratory tract

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84
Q

What are both coughing and sneezing attempts at?

A

To expel foreign objects including pathogens from the body

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85
Q

What are expulsive reflexes?

A

Automatic

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86
Q

What are antigens?

A

Moles found on the surface of cells

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87
Q

What are antigens usually?

A

Proteins or polysaccharides

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88
Q

What happens when a pathogen invades the body?

A

The antigens on its cell surface are identified as foreign which activates cells in the immune system

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89
Q

What two types of stages does the immune response involve?

A

Specific and non-specific stages

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90
Q

Explain non-specific responses?

A

Happens in all microorganism whatever foreign antigens they have

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91
Q

Explain specific response?

A

Antigen-specific aimed at specific pathogens involving white blood cells called T and B lymphocytes

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92
Q

What is a phagocyte?

A

A type of white blood cell that carries out phagocytosis

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93
Q

What is phagocytosis?

A

Engulfment of pathogens

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94
Q

Where are phagocytes found?

A

In blood and in tissues and carry out non-specific immune responses

95
Q

Basic stages of phagocytosis?

A 
Recognises pathogen
Engulf pathogen
Pathogen in phagosome 
Lysosomes breaks down pathogen 
Phagocyte presents pathogens antigens
96
Q

Explain recognition stage phagocytosis?

A

Phagocyte recognises antigens on pathogen

97
Q

Explain engulfing stage phagocytosis?

A

Cytoplasm of phagocyte moves round pathogen engulfing it may be made easier by opsonins

98
Q

What are opsonins?

A

Molecules in blood that attach to foreign antigens to aid phagocytosis

99
Q

How do opsonins?

A

Some hide negative charge on membrane of pathogen making it easier for negatively-charged phagocytes to get closer to the pathogen

100
Q

Explain pathogen contained stage?

A

Pathogen contained in phagosome (type of vesicle) in cytoplasm of phagocyte

101
Q

Explain lysosomes step?

A

Lysosomes contains digestive enzymes fuses with phagosomes. The enzymes break down the pathogen

102
Q

Explain phagocyte presents?

A

Phagocyte presents pathogens antigens sticking antigens on its surface to activate other immune system cells. When phagocyte does this by acting as antigen presenting cell

103
Q

What are neutrophils?

A

A type of phagocyte the first white blood cells to respond to a pathogen inside the body.

104
Q

What do neutrophils do near wounds?

A

Move towards them in response to signals from cytokinesis that acts as messenger molecules. Cytokinesis released by cells at site of the wound

105
Q

What is a T-lymphocyte?

A

A type of white blood cell

106
Q

What is the outside of the T lymphocyte covered with?

A

Receptors

107
Q

What do the T lymphocytes receptors do?

A

Bond to antigens present by antigen-presenting cell (APC)

108
Q

Are receptors on all antigens the same?

A

No each T lymphocyte has a different receptor on its surface

109
Q

What can these receptors on T lymphocytes do?

A

Meet a complementary antigen it binds to it so each T lymphocyte will bind to a different antigen

110
Q

What happens when each T lymphocyte binds to a different antigen?

A

T lymphocytes are activated in a process called clonal selection

111
Q

What happens after clonal selection?

A

T lymphocytes undergo clonal expansion

112
Q

What’s clonal expansion?

A

T lymphocytes divides to produce clones of itself

113
Q

What do different types of T lymphocyte do?

A

Different functions

114
Q

Name some T lymphocytes cells that are activated in clonal selection?

A

T helper cells
T killer cells
T regulatory cells
T Memory cells

115
Q

What do T helper cells

A

Release substances to activate B lymphocyte and T killer cells

116
Q

What do T killer cells do?

A

Attach and kill cells that are infected with a virus

117
Q

T regulatory cells do what?

A

Suppress the immune response from other white blood cells to help stop immune system cells from mistakenly attaching the host’s body cells

118
Q

What are B lymphocytes?

A

Another type of white blood cell

119
Q

What are B lymphocytes covered in?

A

Proteins called antibodies

120
Q

What do the antibodies on the B lymphocytes do?

A

Bind to antigens to form an antigen-antibody complex

121
Q

True or false B lymphocytes have a similar shaped antigen on its surface?

A

False

B Lymphocytes have a different shaped antigen on its surface

122
Q

What can a antibody of a B lymphocyte do?

A

Meet a complementary shaped antigen it binds to it so each B lymphocyte will bind to a different antigen

123
Q

After each B lymphocyte has bonded to a different antigen?

A

Together with substances released from T helper cells activates the B lymphocyte (clonal selection

124
Q

B lymphocyte clonal expansion?

A

Activated B lymphocyte divides by mitosis into plasma cells and memory cells

125
Q

How do cells communicate?

A

Cell signalling

126
Q

Explain cell signalling

A

Cell may release or present a substance that binds to receptors on another cell causing a response of some kind in the other cell

127
Q

Why is cell signalling important in the immune response?

A

It helps activate all the different types of white blood cells needed

128
Q

Give example of cell signalling?

A

T helper cells release interleukins that bind to receptors in B lymphocyte activating B lymphocytes

129
Q

What are the helper cells signalling?

A

B lymphocytes that there’s a pathogen in the body

130
Q

What is interleukins?

A

A type of cytokine

131
Q

What are plasma cells?

A

Clones of B lymphocytes

132
Q

What do plasma cells secrete?

A

Loads of antibodies specific to antigen into the blood

133
Q

What do the antibodies bind to?

A

The antigens on the surface of the pathogen to form a lot antigen-antibody complexes

134
Q

Name bits of antigens you need to know?

A

Variable region
Hinge region
Constant region
Disulfate bridges

135
Q

What does the variable region of an antibody do?

A

Form antigen binding sites . Shape of region complementary to particular antigen. Variable region differs between antibodies

136
Q

Describe hinge region?

A

Allows flexibility when antibodies bind to antigen

137
Q

Describe constant region?

A

Allows binding to receptors on immune system cells e.g. Phagocytes. Constant region always the same in all antibodies

138
Q

Disulfide bridges describe

A

Type of bond

Holds polypeptide chains of proteins together

139
Q

Name three wars antibodies help to clear an infection?

A

1) agglutinating pathogens
2) neutralising toxins
3) preventing pathogen binding to human cell

140
Q

agglutinating pathogens explain

A

Each antibody has 2 binding sites so antibody can bind to 2 pathogens at the same time. Pathogens become clumped together. Phagocytes bind to antibodies and phagocytose a lot of pathogens at once. (Agglutinins= antibodies behaving like this)

141
Q

neutralising toxins explain?

A

Toxins have different shapes. Antibodies called anti-toxins bind to toxins produced by pathogens preventing toxins from affecting human cells so toxins neutralised. Toxin-antibodies complexes phagocytosed.

142
Q

preventing pathogen binding to human cell explain?

A

When antibodies bind to antigen on pathogens they may block cell surface receptors that pathogens need to bind to host cells meaning pathogens can’t attach to or infect host cells.

143
Q

Which is quicker primary or secondary response?

A

Secondary

144
Q

What happens when a pathogen enters the body for the first time?

A

Antigens on surface activates the immune system (primary response)

145
Q

Why is primary response slow?

A

They aren’t many B lymphocytes that make the antibody needed to bind to it.

146
Q

What will the body eventually do? Primary response

A

Produce enough of the right antibody to overcome the infection. Meanwhile infected person shows symptoms of the disease.

147
Q

What do T and B lymphocytes produce after exposed to an antigen?

A

Memory cells which remain in the body for a long time.

148
Q

What will memory T lymphocytes?

A

Remember specific antigen and will recognise it a second time around

149
Q

What will memory B lymphocytes do?

A

Record the specific antibodies needed to bind to the antigen

150
Q

What will the person be after primary response?

A

Immune so immune system had ability to respond quicker to a swine infection.

151
Q

What happens if the same pathogen enters the body again?

A

The immune system will produce a quicker, stronger immune response (secondary response)

152
Q

Secondary response does clonal selection happen?

A

Faster

153
Q

What happens to memory B lymphocytes secondary response?

A

Activated and divide into plasma cells that produce the right antibody to the antigen.

154
Q

What happens to memory T lymphocytes secondary response?

A

Activated and divide into the correct type of T lymphocyte to kill cell carrying the antigen.

155
Q

Secondary response often what?

A

Gets rid of pathogen before you begin to show any symptoms

156
Q

Primary response

A

Pathogen enters for 1st time
Slow response
B and T lymphocytes activated
Symptoms

157
Q

Secondary response

A

Enters for 2nd time
Fast response
Memory cells activated
No symptoms

158
Q

What is a blood smear?

A

Sample of blood smeared over microscope slide

159
Q

What are added to blood smears and why?

A

Stains to sample to make different cells easy to see

160
Q

Likely to see what when looking at blood smear?

A

Red blood cell
White blood cell
Platelets

161
Q

Do white blood cells have granules in their cytoplasm?

A

Some do some don’t

162
Q

How to spot red blood cells?

A

No nucleus so easy

163
Q

Neutrophil recognise?

A

Nucleus looks like three interconnected blobs (multi-loved). Cytoplasm is grainy

164
Q

Lymphocyte recognise

A

Much smaller than neutrophil
Nucleus takes up most of the cell
Very little cytoplasm to be seen not grainy
Can’t tell if T or B lymphocytes under light microscope

165
Q

Monocytes

A

Biggest white blood cell
Type of phagocyte
Kidney-bean shaped nucleus
Non-grainy cytoplasm

166
Q

Active immunity

A

Your immune system makes own antibodies after stimulated by antigen

167
Q

Active natural immunity

A

Become immune after catching disease

E.g. If you have measles as child you can’t catch it again

168
Q

Active artificial

A

Become immune after given vaccination containing harmless dose of antigen

169
Q

Passive immunity

A

Type of immunity you get from being given antibodies made from different organism- immune system doesn’t produce antibodies of its own

170
Q

Passive natural

A

Baby become immune due to antibodies it receives from mother through placenta and in breast milk

171
Q

Passive artificial

A

Immune after injected with antibodies from someone else e.g. Contract tetanus can be injected with antibodies against tetanus toxin collected from blood donation

172
Q

Active immunity summary

A

Requires exposure to antigen
Take while to gain protection
Long term
Memory cells produced

173
Q

Passive immunity summary

A

No exposure to antigen
Immediate protection
Short-term protection
No memory cells produced

174
Q

What does an autoimmune disease involve?

A

An abnormal immune response

175
Q

What causes an autoimmune disease?

A

Sometimes, an organism isn’t able to recognise self-antigens- antigens present on organisms own cells
When this happens, immune system treats self-antigens as foreign antigens and launched immune response against organism own tissue resulting in a disease called an autoimmune disease

176
Q

Two examples of autoimmune diseases?

A

Lupus

Rheumatoid arthritis

177
Q

Lupus describe

A

Caused by immune system attacking cells in connective tissues damaging tissues and causing painful inflammination. Lupus affects skin, joints and organs (heart)

178
Q

Rheumatoid arthritis describe

A

Caused by immune system attacking cells in joints causing pain and inflammination

179
Q

Autoimmune disease last and how can they be helped?

A

Usually chronic but often treated but not cured

180
Q

What’s your immune system doing while you are suffering from a disease

A

While B lymphocytes are busy dividing to built up numbers to deal with pathogen (primary response)

181
Q

What can vaccines do?

A

Help avoid you suffering from the disease

182
Q

How do vaccines work?

A

By containing antigens that cause your body to produce memory cells against particular organisms without pathogen causing disease meaning immunity without symptoms

183
Q

What happens if most people in a community are vaccinated?

A

Disease becomes extremely rare meaning people who haven’t been vaccinated are unlikely to get the disease because there’s no one to catch from (herd immunity)

184
Q

What does herd immunity help prevent?

A

Epidemics, mass outbreaks of disease

185
Q

What do antigens always contain?

A

Antigen may be free of attached or dead or attenuated pathogens

186
Q

Attenuated means?

A

Weakened

187
Q

Why are booster vaccines needed later on?

A

To make sure memory cells are produced

188
Q

Vaccination and immunisation?

A

Vaccination administration of antigens in a vaccine into body
Immunisation is process by which you develop immunity

189
Q

Link between vaccination and immunisation?

A

Vaccination causes immunisation

190
Q

Name two routine vaccines offered to everyone?

A

MMR

Meningitis C vaccine

191
Q

MMR describe

A

Protects against measles, mumps and rubella
Usually given to children as infection around a year old and before starting school
Contains attenuated measles, mumps and rubella viruses

192
Q

Meningitis C virus describe

A

Protects against bacteria that causes Meningitis C
First given as injection to babies at 3 months
Boosters given to 1 years olds and teenagers

193
Q

What happens to flu vaccine every year?

A

Changes because antigens on surface of influzena virus change regularly forming new strains of virus

194
Q

Why does the flu vaccine have to change due to antigen flu virus changes?

A

Memory cells produced from vaccination with one stain of flu won’t recognise other strains with different antigens. Strains are immunologically distant

195
Q

What happens every year flu strains?

A

Different influzena virus strains circulating in population so different vaccine has to be made

196
Q

Laboratories do what for influzena?

A

Collect samples of different strains and organisations like WHO and CDC test effectiveness of different influzena vaccines against them

197
Q

WHO

A

World health organisation

198
Q

CDC

A

Centre for disease control

199
Q

Who is a influzena vaccine chosen?

A

New vaccines are developed and one is chosen every year that is most effective against recently circulating influzena viruses

200
Q

What must governments and health authorities?

A

Implement programmes of vaccination using most suitable vaccine. Sometimes people are given vaccine that protects from strain causing epidermis in another county helping stop strain spreading globally

201
Q

What do your genes determine?

A

How your body responds to certain drugs

202
Q

Different people respond to the same drug how?

A

In different way so makes certain drugs more effective for some people then others. So personalised medicines are a good idea.

203
Q

Personalised medicines are?

A

Medicines tailored to individual DNA.

204
Q

Theory behind personalised medicines?

A

If doctors have genetic information, they can use it to predict how you will respond to different drugs and only prescribe ones that will be most effective

205
Q

What do scientists hope relating to personalised medicine?

A

By studying relationship between someone’s genetic make up and responsiveness to drugs the more effective drugs can be produced in the future

206
Q

What does synthetic biology involve?

A

Using technology to design and makes things like artificial protein, cells or even microorganisms

207
Q

Applications of synthetic biology?

A

Lots of different areas including medicine e.g. Scientists are looking at engineering bacteria to destroy cancer cells leaving healthy body cells intact

208
Q

What are antibiotics?

A

Chemicals that kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria

209
Q

When are antibiotics used by humans?

A

As drugs to treat bacterial infections. Useful because they can target bacterial cells without damaging human body cells

210
Q

What was penicillin?

A

First antibiotic isolated by Alexander Fleming in 1928

211
Q

Antibiotic use became widespread from?

A

Mid-twentieth century partly thanks to successful treatment of soldiers with penicillin in WW2

212
Q

Past few decades we have dealt with bacterial infections?

A

Pretty easily using antibiotics causing death rate from infectious bacterial disease has fallen dramatically

213
Q

What are some risks of antibiotics?

A

Can cause side effects, severe allergic reactions in some people, biggest risk is antibiotic resistance

214
Q

Bacterial infections treatment in animals?

A

Antibiotics

215
Q

What is their in the bacteria population?

A

Genetic variation

216
Q

What makes some bacteria naturally resistant to antibiotics?

A

Genetic mutations

217
Q

What is the ability to resist an antibiotic to a bacterium?

A

A big advantage

218
Q

Why is the ability to resist an antibiotic to a bacterium a big advantage?

A

It’s better able to survive, even in a host who’s being treated with antibiotics to get rid of the infection and so it lives fit longer and reproduces many more times.

219
Q

What’s does the host being the bacteria living longer and reproducing more times mean for the ability to resist an antibiotic?

A

Leads to the allele for antibiotic resistance being passed on to lots of offspring. Example of natural selection. This is how antibiotics spread and become more common in a population of bacteria over time.

220
Q

What is the issue with bacteria being resistant to antibiotics for people?

A

People who become infected with these bacteria can’t easily get rid of them with antibiotics

221
Q

What does increased use of antibiotics mean?

A

Antibiotic resistance is increasing. Superbugs that are resistant to most known antibiotics are becoming common meaning we are less able to treat potentially life-threatening bacterial infections.

222
Q

Two examples of antibiotic resistant bacteria?

A

MRSA

Clostridium difficile

223
Q

MRSA

A

Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus

224
Q

MRSA describe

A

Causes serious wound infections

Resistant to several antibiotics including meticillin

225
Q

Clostridium difficile describe

A

Infects digestive system
Usually causing problems with people already treated with antibiotic
Thought to be harmless bacteria that are normally present in digestive system being killed off by antibiotics which C. difficile is resistant to
Allowing C. difficile to flourish

226
Q

What symptoms does Clostridium difficile cause?

A

Produces a toxin causing diarrhoea, fever and cramps

227
Q

What are two ways of overcoming problems of antibiotics?

A

Developing new antibiotics
Modifying existing ones
(Harder work to do than learning this lol)

228
Q

Ways in which the likelihood of antibiotics resistance developing?

A

Doctors encouraged to reduce use of antibiotics
Patients advised to take all antibiotics they’re prescribed to make sure the infection is cleared and all the bacteria have been killed reducing risk of population of antibiotic-resistant bacteria developing

229
Q

Doctors encouraged to reduce use of antibiotics examples?

A

Not to prescribe for minor infections
Not to prescribe to prevent infection (except for patients with already weakened immune system e.g. HIV sufferers, elderly)

230
Q

How are many medicinal drugs manufactured?

A

Using natural compounds found in plants, animals or microorganisms e.g. Penicillin obtained from fungus
Some cancer drugs made from soil bacteria
Daffodils now grown to produce a drug used to treat Alzheimer’s disease

231
Q

What proportion of organisms have been investigated so far?

A

Only a small proportion of organisms have been investigated so far, it’s possible that plants or microorganisms exist that contain compounds that could be used to treat currently incurable disease such as AID’s. Others may produce new antibiotics

232
Q

What do possible sources of drugs need to be?

A

Protected by maintaining biodiversity on earth. If we don’t protect them some species could die out before we have a chance to study them

233
Q

Even organisms studied could do what?

A

Prove to be useful sources of medicines as new techniques are developed for identifying, purifying and testing compounds

Biology A Level (26 decks)

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