topic 6

Question 1

The Importance of Genetic Diversity in Conservation Biology

Answer 1

1essential for the adaptation and evolution of species.
2can enhance ecosystem
functioning.
3 essential for maintaining healthy populations of endangered
species
4essential for agriculture
and food security.

Question 2

why is genetic diversity essencial for adaptation and evolution of species

Answer 2

In natural populations, genetic diversity enables individuals to respond to environmental changes,
such as climate change, habitat loss, and disease outbreaks. Genetic diversity can
increase the chances of survival for a species by allowing some individuals to have traits
that are better suited to changing environmental conditions. Without genetic diversity,
populations may be unable to adapt to new conditions, leading to declines in population
size and possibly even extinction.
ginetic diversity-> some individuals have traits better adapt/respond to changes (cimate change,habitat loss, disease outbreak)
no ginetic diveristy-> unable to adapt-> decline in pop size or even extinction

Question 3

how does ginetic diversity help enhance ecosystem functioning

Answer 3

Many ecological processes, such as nutrient cycling, pollination, and seed
dispersal, are carried out by diverse groups of species. Genetic diversity within species
can contribute to the diversity and stability of these ecological communities. For example,
genetic diversity within a plant species can increase its ability to resist diseases and
pests, improving its overall fitness and contributing to ecosystem health.

speices carry out ecological processes such as nutrient cycling, pollination, seed dispersal. genetic diversity-> increase ability to resist diseases and pets-> still can carry out function-> contributing to diversity and stability of ecological communities-> ecosystem health

Question 4

how does genetic diveristy help to mainatin healthy population of endangered species

Answer 4

Small populations of endangered species are particularly susceptible to genetic
drift, the random loss of genetic variation, and inbreeding, which can lead to reduced
genetic diversity and increased susceptibility to disease and genetic disorders. To ensure
the long-term survival of endangered species, conservation biologists often focus on
increasing genetic diversity through genetic management techniques, such as genetic
rescue and reintroduction programs.

small population-> cause inbreeeding and genetic drift (thing that gene didnt get passes on and it gone away far away, drift from that gene) -> less genetic diverisity -> more suscpetable to diseases and genetic disorders
with geneitc diveristy-> less genetic drift etc-> ensure helathy population of endangered species (they have no genetic drift/ diseases bc of it)

Question 5

why is genetic diversity essencial for agriculture and food security

Answer 5

Agricultural crops with low genetic diversity are more susceptible to
pests, diseases, and environmental stresses, reducing yields and compromising food security. To ensure sustainable food production, conservation biologists and agricultural scientists work together to maintain and increase genetic diversity in agricultural crops and livestock.
low gientic diversity-> crops more susceptable to pests, diseases, environmental changes-> less yeild-> less food security

Question 6

what are the Danger of inbreeding in wildlife

Answer 6

due to inbreeding and drift, they are intrinsically vulnerable to reduced genetic
variation and the expression of partially recessive deleterious mutations. (genetic changes that have harmful effects but may only fully manifest when an individual has two copies of the mutated gene. When only one copy is present, the negative effects might be less pronounced or not apparent at all.)

Question 7

what are the different ex situ managmeet strategies

different approaches to managing animal populations in captivity

diffeerent minitoring strategies of breeding ex situ (captvity) with genetics

Answer 7

1high- intensity pedigree (record or diagram that shows the lineage or ancestry of an individual. ) -based breeding: closely monitoring and managing the genetic lineage of each individual in the captive population. The goal is to avoid inbreeding and maintain genetic diversity by making breeding decisions based on detailed pedigree information.
2to low-intensity pedigree-free group management, : less emphasis on tracking genetic pedigree tracking. focuses on managing the group as a whole (health etc) backgrounds
3a complete absence of breeding intervention whatsoever:natural breeding occurs naturally without any management or planning to control genetic diversity.

Question 8

What recent debate in conservation biology concerns neutral genetic variation?

Answer 8

Recent debate focuses on the significance of neutral genetic variation in sourcing populations for restorations. This includes discussions on whether neutral genetic variation should be prioritized alongside functional genomic variation.

Neutral Genetic Variation: Does not impact fitness or survival; used for studying genetic diversity (evolution) and population history. (to avoid inbreeeding, ginetic drift)

Functional Genetic Variation: Affects fitness and survival; important for understanding adaptation and evolutionary processes.

Question 9

What is neutral genetic variation, and why is it considered significant in conservation biology?

Answer 9

Neutral genetic variation refers to genetic differences that do not have a direct effect on an organism’s fitness. It’s considered significant because it might affect the overall genetic health of populations and play a role in their adaptability.

Question 9

What does “genomic evidence for purging in the wild” refer to? and what is the impact of it on conservation efforts

Answer 9

It refers to the observation that some wild populations may naturally eliminate harmful genetic mutations over time, which could challenge traditional views that emphasize the need for high genetic diversity in conservation efforts. ( so bc of natural purging essencial genemes is loss and just trying to increase genetic diveristy as a whole may not work, may need to use other methods such as preserving functional genetic variation (which affects traits essential for survival and reproduction) rather than just aiming for high overall genetic diversity.)just focusing on increaseing overall ginentic diveristy, the imp geomes are still loss, so we need to try to preserve the ones that may grt loss during purging)

Question 9

What is the significance of simulation-based studies in conservation genetics?

Answer 9

Simulation-based studies explore how effective population size, genetic variation, and extinction risk interact, suggesting that focusing on functional genomic variation might be crucial for successful genetic rescue attempts.

Question 10

What is meant by a “unifying strategy” in conservation efforts? (they use this when during trnaslocation)

Answer 10

A comprehensive approach that aims to balance minimizing risks (e.g., disease, inbreeding) and maximizing benefits (e.g., successful establishment, ecological impact).

Question 10

What are some factors considered in founder selection for translocations?

Answer 10

Factors include genetics, ecological needs, habitat suitability, health, behavior, and genetic diversity.

founder slelection: choose individuals for establishing a new populatio

Question 10

what is founder selection and when is it used for

Answer 10

Founder Selection: Choosing individuals (founders) from existing populations to start a new or reinforce an existing population in a different location.
used for trnasloaction

Question 10

Why is empirical data important in conservation management?

Answer 10

it provides real-world insights into inbreeding patterns, deleterious mutations, and their effects, which helps in making more informed and effective decisions.

Empirical data refers to information that is collected through observation, experimentation, or direct experience.

Question 11

How can genomics help biodiversity conservation?

Answer 11

include taxonomic identification and biodiversity monitoring associated with
ecosystem protection and restoration (e.g., for invasive species management). At the
same time, human activities exert significant demographic pressures on habitats and
endangered species. This requires managing small populations, restoring and increasing
genetic diversity of target species/populations, and supporting species adaptation to a
changing environment. Genomic data can help tackle these issues as they allow us to
characterize and monitor genetic diversity through a wide array of emerging tools. The
novel insights that can be obtained from genomic data have led to the formation of
several national and international initiatives aiming to expand the genomic resources
available for non-model species.

Question 12

what are the different genetic meothds used in biodiversity conservation

Answer 12

-genetics barcoding and metabarcoding

Question 12

what is the fucntion of genetic barcoding and metabarcoding and what does it tell us

Answer 12

DNA barcoding has become a standard, efficient genetic approach for species
identification and biodiversity monitoring.

DNA barcoding sequences informative DNA
loci (specific spot on chromosome that tell us about the universal/taxon specific primers) with universal (found in many species-broad) or taxon-specific primers (only is some species) that anneal(attached) to conserved flanking regions.(they are located near these genes, these genes usually dont change, help in identification of the ‘changed’ones)

Question 13

function of Reduced genomic representation and what does it tell us

Answer 13

Reduced representation DNA sequencing (RRS) (only part of the genome is used) approaches are predominant in studies aimed at non-model species. (not very researched) RRS approaches provide genome-wide data in large
sample sizes at a comparably reduced cost.
function: find out more about not well researched species to find out about their ginetics, evolution, their ancesstors/who they are related to)

Question 14

function of gene exporession and what does it tell us

Answer 14

Gene expression data (usually RNA-Seq) have given rise to a new conservation
framework by characterizing genetic variation in natural populations through functional variation and rapid responses of individuals or populations to environmental change. (basically compare the genetic variation of same popuation and inderstand the impacts of the environment causing this change in genetics)
difference in gene expression can tell us about: response to environment change (temp), response to pesticide, diseases, predict future respose to change,
it can also be used to used to identify entire
gene networks in the absence of prior knowledge of the genes involved.(tells us all the different genes)

Question 15

function of whole genome sequencing and what it can tell us

Answer 15

function: perform detailed analyses of genetic variation and evolutionary processes,(natural selection) offering a deep understanding of how species have evolved and adapted over time.

Question 16

what is Non-invasive genomic sampling
and what does it tell us

Answer 16

Non-invasive or minimally invasive sampling of biological material (e.g., from feces, feather, or hair) is commonly used in wildlife monitoring as the main source of genetic material to provide insights into the ecology of endangered species. Noninvasive samples typically contain low amounts of poor-quality DNA, often contaminated with exogenous DNA (not naturally there, not suppose to be)

Question 17

definition of habitat

Answer 17

Habitat is the physical and biological setting in which organisms live and in which the
other components of the environment are encountered

Question 18

our essential components of a species’ environment,

Answer 18

habitat
climate variables,
nutrients,
and other interacting organisms

Question 19

why is it important to preserve/restore habitat

Answer 19

The fact that habitat serves a multitude of organisms is critical to understanding its full role in the Endangered Species Act. Many species have not been classified, nor their status determined. Our knowledge of species is too limited, and the species deserving of endangered or threatened status too numerous, to list all that might merit it in a time frame adequate to protect them. (so we need to preotect habitat becoasue there is too many secies some that may br rndangered but not classified

Question 20

impact of habitat loss

Answer 20

major cause of extinction
places additional pressures on endangered species management: habitat available is limited, protection or maintenance of the
present condition of a habitat for one species can adversely affect another

eg boundaries or edges between different habitat types (gaps or openings)
favor some wildflowers and other desirable plants , but large, unbroken tracts of habitat favor other species.
(so becuase there is less habitat choosing which habitat to save or expand can be an issue bc expanding one can impact different species)

Question 21

steps to determine and implement the most effective conservation strategies for a species.

Answer 21

1. choosing to suport in situ (natural habitat) or ex situ ( captive breeding)
   2.A logical hierarchical approach to the analysis of available data (habitat) + use data to predict species’ needs and responses to different conservation strategies.
   3.Population Viability Analysis (PVA): to predict the likelihood that a species will avoid extinction over a given period, based on demographic data and environmental factors. (analyse risk factor of strategy)
2. An outline that describes in detail future research needs and how that research
   when completed will contribute to species and habitat management. (what else reserach to do due to gaps plus impacts of strategy implemented)
   5.An effective monitoring scheme that relates census information to the physical
   and biotic factors likely to affect population dynamics. (monitor behaviour etc)

Question 22

Why should the prioritization and cost estimation in recovery planning be reviewed?

Answer 22

Because prioritizing activities is necessary but difficult, and because estimating cost
would be helpful but nearly impossible for typical recovery teams to carry out,

Question 23

what questions to ask ourself during recovery planning (to help improve conservation strategy)

Answer 23

How much of a species’ historic range should be protected to ensure recovery or
prevent extinction? (remember prtoecting/creating too much can have negative impacts on other species)

2. Are there critical aspects of a species’ life history or ecological and genetic
   requirements that must be known to successfully implement a recovery plan? (breeding, migrating) Are
   they known?
3. What is known about the species’ use of and need for corridors among its various
   populations? (Corridors are essential for species that require movement between different populations or habitats for genetic exchange, migration, or resource access. )
   they may need to migrate duringchanging season, corridors ensures there is a clearn path for them)
4. To what degree is a focus on a single species likely to be as successful as an
   approach that includes the needs of other species in the area, or an ecosystem
   approach?

Question 24

what is the purpose of protected areas and what are the different categories of protected areas

Answer 24

Protected areas are areas of land and/or sea especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity, and of natural and associated cultural resources,
and managed through legal or other effective means.
the idfferent categories:
cat 1: Strict Nature Reserve/Wilderness Area
cat 2: national parks
cat 5: Protected Landscape/Seascape

Question 25

tell me about catergory 1: dtrict nature reserve/ wilderness area

Answer 25

strict nature reserves: exceptional or typical examples of natural environments, ecosystems, geograpgical features (mountains) phsycological features (soil,ph,temp), species (for research purposes, environmental monitoring )
wilderness area: some or no modified sea/land by humans,protected and managed so as to preserve their natural condition (wilderness areas)

objectives of strict nautre reserves: limited public acess
-protect habitat,ecosystem,species with minimal disturbance (with careful planning and execution of research and other approved areas )
-to safeguard structural landscape features or rock exposures
5. to secure examples of the natural environment for scientific studies,
environmental monitoring and education

wilderness areas objective:
Future Generations: Ensure future generations can experience and enjoy largely undisturbed areas.
Natural Attributes: Maintain essential natural attributes and environmental qualities over the long term.
Public Access: Provide public access that supports physical and spiritual well-being while maintaining wilderness qualities.
Indigenous Communities: Enable indigenous communities to live in balance with available resources and maintain their lifestyle.

Question 26

tell me about catergory II: national parks

Answer 26

National Park: protected areas managed mainly for ecosystem
conservation and recreation. Natural areas of land and/or sea, designated to
(a) protect the ecological integrity of one or more ecosystems for this and future
generations
(b) Prevent exploitation or occupation that conflicts with conservation goals.
(c) provide a foundation for spiritual, scientific, educational, recreational and visitor
opportunities, all of which must be environmentally and culturally compatible.

objectives: Protect Natural and Scenic Areas:

Preserve areas of national and international significance for their spiritual, scientific, educational, recreational, or tourist potential.
Preserve Natural State:

Maintain areas in as natural a state as possible, representing various physiographic regions, biotic communities, genetic resources, and species to ensure ecological stability and diversity.
Manage Visitor Use:

Regulate visitor activities to inspire, educate, and provide cultural and recreational experiences while maintaining the area’s natural or near-natural state.
Prevent Exploitation:

Eliminate and prevent activities that harm the park’s conservation goals.
Respect Attributes:

Maintain respect for the ecological, geological, sacred, or aesthetic features that justify the park’s designation.
Consider Indigenous Needs:

Acknowledge and incorporate the needs of indigenous people, including subsistence resource use, as long as these do not conflict with conservation objectives.

Question 27

tell me about catergory iii: protected landscapes/seascapes

Answer 27

Protected areas managed for landscape/seascape conservation and recreation. These areas are characterized by the interaction of people and nature over time, producing significant aesthetic, (farming little cotages) cultural, and ecological value, often with high biological diversity. Preserving the integrity of this traditional interaction is essential for their protection, maintenance, and evolution.

Objectives:

Maintain Interaction of Nature and Culture:

Protect landscapes and seascapes while continuing traditional land uses, building practices, and cultural manifestations.
Support Sustainable Lifestyles and Economic Activities:

Encourage economic activities and lifestyles that are in harmony with nature and help preserve the social and cultural fabric of local communities.
Maintain Diversity:

Preserve the diversity of landscapes, habitats, and associated species and ecosystems.
Eliminate Inappropriate Land Uses:

Remove and prevent land uses and activities that are inappropriate in scale or character.
Provide Public Enjoyment:

Offer opportunities for recreation and tourism that are appropriate to the area’s essential qualities and promote environmental protection.
Encourage Scientific and Educational Activities:

Support activities that contribute to the long-term well-being of resident populations and foster public support for environmental protection.
Benefit Local Communities:

Provide natural products and services to local communities, such as forest and fisheries products, clean water, and income from sustainable tourism.
Explanation and Examples:
Maintain Interaction of Nature and Culture:

Example: The Cinque Terre National Park in Italy preserves traditional terraced agriculture and fishing practices that have shaped the landscape over centuries.
Support Sustainable Lifestyles and Economic Activities:

Example: The Bialowieza Forest in Poland and Belarus supports sustainable forestry practices and eco-tourism, preserving both biodiversity and local cultural traditions.
Maintain Diversity:

Example: The Cape Winelands Biosphere Reserve in South Africa maintains diverse habitats and species while supporting traditional wine-growing practices.
Eliminate Inappropriate Land Uses:

Example: The New Forest National Park in the UK removes or restricts activities that threaten the character of its ancient woodlands and heathlands.
Provide Public Enjoyment:

Example: The Wadden Sea in Germany, the Netherlands, and Denmark offers eco-tourism activities like bird watching and guided mudflat walks, promoting conservation awareness.
Encourage Scientific and Educational Activities:

Example: The Sierra Gorda Biosphere Reserve in Mexico encourages research and education on sustainable practices and biodiversity conservation.
Benefit Local Communities:

Example: The Mount Athos Peninsula in Greece provides local communities with forest products and income from tourism while maintaining traditional monastic practices.

Question 28

what is captive breeding

Answer 28

Captive breeding is the process of breeding of wild animals in places such as zoos or
wildlife parks, especially to help preserve endangered species that are threatened by
extinction in the wild. The process also includes the release of individual species to the
wild, when there is sufficient natural habitat to support new individuals or when the threat
to the species in the wild is minimized.

Question 29

how does genetics play a role in captive breeding

Answer 29

purpose of captive breeding: e preservation of maximum genetic variability within a species, preventing extinciton

Genetic Methods: By using techniques like gene expression, barcoding, and metabarcoding, scientists can gather detailed genetic information about a species. This includes identifying genetic variants, understanding gene activity, and recognizing genetic differences among individuals.

Assessing Genetic Diversity: By studying a small, geographically diverse sample of the species, scientists can get a snapshot of the species’ overall genetic diversity. This information helps identify how diverse the gene pool is and if there are any significant genetic variations.

Importance in Captive Breeding: In captive breeding programs, maintaining genetic diversity is crucial. If individuals are closely related, it can lead to inbreeding, which reduces genetic variability and can result in health problems and decreased adaptability. By knowing the genetic diversity and relatedness of individuals, conservationists can design breeding plans that avoid inbreeding and help preserve the species’ genetic health.

Question 30

what is translocation

Answer 30

human-mediated movement of living organisms from one area, with
release in another.
can be aciidental or intentional
involves releasing organsims in habitat siilar to their natural habitat (difference in sex ratio, environment, different populatio size) Conservation translocations can entail releases either within or outside the species’
indigenous range.

Question 31

Population restoration is any conservation translocation to within indigenous
range,(where they are seen to naturalluy occur) and comprises two activities:

think need to restore population: where? to the existing indegenous range or to a place that is indigenous but does not currently have anymore

Answer 31

Reinforcement: is the intentional movement and release of an organism into an existing population-> to enhance population viability(increasing population size, by increasing genetic diversity,
or by increasing the representation of specific demographic groups or stages.)

• Reintroduction: intentional movement and release of an organism inside its
  indigenous range from which it has disappeared. Reintroduction aims to reestablish a viable population of the focal species within its indigenous range.

Question 32

Conservation introduction is the intentional movement and release of an
organism outside its indigenous range. Two types of conservation introduction are
recognised:

Answer 32

Assisted colonisation: is the intentional movement and release of an organism
outside its indigenous range to avoid extinction of populations of the focal species. can be moved far away or just nearby indigenous area (due to threats such as habitat loss)

• Ecological replacement: is the intentional movement and release of an organism
  outside its indigenous range to perform a specific ecological function. This is used
  to re-establish an ecological function lost through extinction, and will often
  involve the most suitable existing sub-species, or a close relative of the extinct
  species within the same genus. (moving species that perform similar functin into habitat-> to meaintain ecological function and balance)

Question 33

Main challenges associated with reintroducing animals into their natural habitats or translocating

Answer 33

High Cost:
Challenge: Conservation translocation projects are expensive and complex.
Solution: To make these projects more successful, it’s crucial to learn from both past successes and failures. Effective planning and incorporating lessons from previous efforts can improve the chances of success.

Behavior of Translocated Individuals:
Challenge: Predicting and managing the behavior of animals after they are moved to a new location can be difficult.
Details: Translocated animals face novel environments and may initially react based on their evolutionary history and prior experiences (e.g., from captivity or the wild).
Their initial behavior may not be optimal, and they need time to adapt and learn about their new habitat.
Solution: Understanding the species’ behavior and how it adapts to new environments is crucial for successful translocation.

Spread of Diseases:
Challenge: Managing disease spread is a significant concern in translocations.
Details:
Certain behaviors can make animals more susceptible to diseases or turn them into ‘superspreaders.’
Identifying how behavioral interactions contribute to disease transmission is essential.
Solution: Wildlife managers should use knowledge of species’ behavior to identify and mitigate disease risks.
Overall:

Comprehensive Management: To increase the likelihood of successful translocation, managers need thorough knowledge of the species, community support, continuous funding, coordination among stakeholders, and ongoing monitoring.
Complexity: The complexity of these factors often contributes to the lower success rates of some translocation projects, especially if they lack careful planning and scientific backing.

Question 34

challenges associated with the dispersal and movement of animals

Answer 34

Dispersal Issues:

Long-Distance Dispersal: One major problem is that translocated animals often move away from the release site over long distances, which can decrease their chances of survival. This can be particularly challenging to differentiate from other causes of mortality, especially in small animals.
Behavioral Factors Influencing Dispersal:

Lack of Conspecifics: If the translocated animals are placed in an area with few or no other individuals of their species, they might disperse to find others.
Stress: The stress of adjusting to a new environment can drive animals to move away from the release site.
Natal Habitat Preference Induction (NHPI): Animals may prefer habitats that have similar characteristics or cues to their original (natal) habitats, even if these new habitats are of lower quality. This can lead them to reject suitable habitats if they do not match the cues they associate with their previous homes.
Methods to Mitigate Dispersal:

Familiarization: Providing animals with cues from the release site while they are still in captivity can help them adjust better when released.
Food Provisioning: Placing food near the release site can help keep the animals in the area.
Conspecific Calls: Using recordings of calls from other members of their species can make the area feel more familiar and attractive.
Resource Selection: Choosing release sites with specific resources that will help retain animals in the area.
Overall, understanding and addressing these behavioral factors are crucial for increasing the success of translocation efforts and ensuring that animals remain in their designated release areas.