Topic 5 - Health, Diease And The Development Of Medicines Flashcards
1
Q
What is a disease?
What are the 2 types of disease?
A
A disease is a condition where part of an organism doesn’t function properly
-communicable
-non communicable
2
Q
What’s a communicable disease?
A
A communicable disease can be spread between individuals
3
Q
What’s a non-communicable disease?
A
A non-communicable disease can’t be transmitted between individuals
4
Q
What are commutable diseases caused by and what are 6examples of communicable diseases ?
A
-Communicable diseases are caused by pathogens
-Ebola
-chakra ash dieback
-malaria
-cholera
-tuberculosis
-stomach ulcers
5
Q
Examples of pathogens ?
A
-viruses
-bacteria
-fungi
-protists
6
Q
Examples of pathogens ?
A
-viruses
-bacteria
-fungi
-protists
7
Q
What is Ebola?
How’s Ebola spread?
What does it cause?
How do we reduce transmutations ?
A
-Ebola is a viral disease
-spread via body fluids
- causes a fever with bleeding
Transmission can be reduced by isolating infected individuals
8
Q
What is chalara ash dieback and what does it infect?
Symptoms of chalara ash dieback
How’s chalara ash dieback transmitted ?
How do we stop transmittion ?
A
-chalara ash dieback is a fungal disease that’s caused by a fungus that infects ash trees.
-symptoms include leaf loss and bark lesions
- chakra ash dieback is transmitted through air by the wind
-remove infected trees and replant
9
Q
What’s malaria caused by?
Effect of malaria?
How is it transmitted?
How do we stop this?
A
-Malaria is caused by a protist.
-effects of malaria includes damage to red blood cells and liver
-caused by mosquitos.
-mosquito nets and repellent
10
Q
3 diseases caused by bacteria?
A
-cholera
-tuberculosis
-stomach ulcers
11
Q
Symptoms of cholera?
How’s it spread?
How can we stop transmittion?
A
-diarrhoea
-spread via contaminated water sources
-making sure people have access to clean water supplies
12
Q
Symptoms of tuberculosis?
How is tuberculosis spread?
How do reduce transmissions of tuberculosis?
A
-coughing and lung damadged
-bacteria is spread through the air when infected individuals cough.
-infected people should practice good hygiene, avoid public places and sleep alone.
13
Q
Symptoms of stomach ulcers?
How are stomach ulcers spread?
How can transmission of stomach ulcers be reduced?
A
-stomach pain, nausea and vomiting
- oral transmission such as swallowing contaminated water
-having clean water supppliws
14
Q
Symptoms of stomach ulcers?
How are stomach ulcers spread?
How can transmission of stomach ulcers be reduced?
A
-stomach pain, nausea and vomiting
- oral transmission such as swallowing contaminated water
-having clean water supppliws
15
Q
What does STI stand for?
A
Sexually transmitted infection
16
Q
How are STIs spread?
A
STIs are spread through sexual contact, including sexual intercourse.
17
Q
Examples of STIs …
A
Chlamydia
HIV
18
Q
What is chlamydia?
What can it result in?
How can the spread of chlamydia be reduced?
A
-Chlamydia is a kind of bacterium but it behaves in a similar way to a virus as it can only reproduce inside host cells
-it can result in infertility
-spread of chlamydia can be reduced by wearing a condom when having sex.
19
Q
What does HIV kill?
What does HIV infection eventually lead to?
What happens in aids?
How’s HIV spread? And how can we prevent spread?
A
-HIV kills white blood cells, which are very important for the immune response.
-HIV infection eventually leads to AIDS.
-aids is when the infected persons immune system deteriorates and fails. This makes the person vulnerable to infections by other pathogens.
-HIV is spread via infected bodily fluids. Ways to prevent HIV spread include wearing a condom during sex
20
Q
Where do viruses reproduce?
A
Viruses can only reproduce inside living cells.
21
Q
What are viruses?
A
Pathogen that invades cells of a human , replicates and releases toxins , making them ill
Viruses aren’t cells.
They’re usually no more than a protein coat around a strand of genetic material.
22
Q
What 2 pathways can a virus go down?
A
-lytic
-lysogenic (leads to lytic eventually)
23
Q
What happens to the virus in the lytic pathway?
A
1) virus attaches itself to host cell, injects genetic material into the cell.
2)virus uses proteins and enzymes in the host cell to replicate genetic material and produce the components of new viruses.
3) viral components assemble
4)host cell splits open / lyses , releasing the new viruses which infects more cells
24
Q
What happens in the lysogenic pathway of a virus?
A
1) injected genetic material is incorporated into the genome of the host cell (becomes part of the dna)
2) viral genetic material is replicated along with host DNA every time host cell divides but the virus remains dormant (inactive )
3)eventually a trigger causes the viral genetic material to leave the genome and enter the lytic pathway.
25
What are plants physical defences against pathogens ?
-leaves and stems have a waxy cuticle which provides a barrier against pathogens. Also may stop water from collecting on the leaf
-cell walls made from cellulose. Forms a physical barrier against pathogens that make it past the waxy cuticle
26
What are plants chemical defences against pathogens?
-they produce antiseptics which kill bacteria and fungal pathogens. Chemicals also deter pests
-
27
What chemicals from plants can be used as drugs or to treat human diseases and how?
-QUININE . bark of the cinchona tree —- malaria.
-ASPIRIN, relieve pain and fever. Found in bark and leaves of willow trees.
28
Who detects disease symptoms in plants?
Plant pathologists
29
Example of Why may a plant show symptoms of disease?
How can we test if it was diseased of if the symptoms where because of something else?
-Environmental conditions such as a nutrient deficiency.
-changing the environmental conditions such as adding nutrients to the soil.
30
Would it suggest a pathogen was spread through airborne of soil if the distribution of infected plants is random?
Airbourne
31
Where are antigens located?
Antigens are located on the surface of pathogens and other cells in the body such as blood cells
32
What does the detection of an antigen help do?
The detection of an antigen unique to a particular pathogen allows that pathogen to be identified and the disease diagnosed within a plant.
33
What are two ways of laboratory diagnostic testing used to determine a pathogen infecting a plant?
-detecting pathogens
-detecting DNA
34
What does detecting DNA do to help identify a pathogen in a plant?
If a plants infected with a pathogen The pathogens DNA will remain in the plants tissues.
Scientists can detect small amounts of pathogen DNA and identify the pathogen present
35
What are the ‘barriers ‘ our bodies have to stop pathogens entering them?
-skin gets damadged, it immediately seals cuts to keep microorganisms out
-hair and mucus in your nose trap particles that could contain pathogens
-cells in your trachea and bronchi produce mucus which trap pathogens. Cilia waft mucus back up the throat where it can be swallowed.
-stomach produces hydrochloric acid that kills most pathogens that are swallowed.
-eyes produce an enzyme called lysozyme in tears which kills bacteria on the surface of the eye.
36
How are pathogens killed when they get into the body?
Your immune system attacks the pathogens
37
What cells travel around your blood and patrol for pathogens?
White blood cells
38
What are the type of white blood cells involved in a specific immune response?
B-lymphocytes are a type of white blood cells involved in specific immune response
39
What does the response to a specific pathogen look like?
1) every pathogen has antigens.
2) B-lymphocytes come across antigens on a pathogen and produce proteins called antibodies.
3)Antibodies bind to the new invading pathogen so it can be found and destroyed by other white blood cells.
4)the antibodies are then produced rapidly and flow around the body to find all similar pathogens.
40
What do memory lymphocytes do?
Memory lymphocytes give immunity to a later infection.
41
Why is the response slow when a pathogen entered the body for the first time?
Because there aren’t many B-lymphocytes that can make the antibody needed to kick onto the antigen.
42
What’s the main point of memory lymphocytes ?
There meant to stay in the body for a long time and ‘remember’ a specific antigen.
43
What will happen if the same pathogen entered the body for the second time?
Because of the memorry lymphocytes, the secondary immune response will be faster and stronger. It will probually get rid of the pathogen before you show any symptoms.
44
What is immunisation ?
Immunisation is injecting dead or inactive pathogens into the body that are antigenic( carry antigens). So even though they’re harmless your body will make antibodies to help destroy them.
45
What will the antigens in immunisation trigger?
The antigens in immunisation will trigger the production of memory lymphocytes. This means there will be a fast secondary immune response if the same type of pathogens entered your body again.
46
Pros off immunisation?
-‘herd immunity’ if a large percentage of the population is immunised, even the people who aren’t are unlikely to catch the disease.
-diseases such as smallpox have been virtually wiped out by immunisation programmes
47
Cons of immunisation?
-doesn’t always work, may not give you immunity
-have a bad reaction to a vaccine such as swelling or siezures. Very rare
48
What are antibodies produced by ?
B-lymphocytes
49
How do you create a hybridoma cell?
1)antigen injected into mouse
2)mouse produces lymphocytes which produce antibodies specific to antigen. (Lymphocytes can’t divide once they’ve started producing antibodies)
3)spleen cells which produce lymphocytes are removed during an operation
4)spleen cells fused with cancerous white blood cells called myeloma cells to form hybridoma cells (cancerous cells divide infinitely)
5)hybridoma cells divide and produce millions of monoclonal antibodies specific to the original antigen
50
Why do we have to use a tumor cell to create a hybridoma?
Because tumor cells divide lots so they can be grown easily
51
Stages of getting a monoclonal antibody…
1) mouse injected with chosen antigen. B-lymphocytes taken from mouse.
2) B-lymphocyte fused with tumor cell. To make a hybridoma
3) it divides quickly to produce lots of clones that produce the monoclonal antibodies .
52
Why are monoclonal antibodies especially useful?
Monoclonal antibodies are really useful because you can make them bind to one molecule or chemical in the body. They will target it.
53
Why are monoclonal antibodies especially useful?
Monoclonal antibodies are really useful because you can make them bind to one molecule of chemical in the body. They will target it.
54
Where is the hormone HCG found?
The hormone HCG is found in women when they are pregnant
55
How does a pregnancy test work?
What happens if your pregnant ?
The bit of the stick you wee on has some antibodies to the hormone with blue beads attached.
If you’re pregnant, the hormone binds to the antibodies on the blue beads. Urine moves up stick carrying the hormone and blue beads. Beads and hormone bind to the antibodies on the strip. Blue beads get stuck on the strip, turning it blue.
56
What are used in pregnancy tests?
Monoclonal antibodies
57
What do we use to find blood clots?
Monoclonal antibodies
58
How can monoclonal antibodies be used to find blood clots?
Why is this useful?
1)when blood clots, proteins join together to form a mesh.
2)monoclonal antibodies can bind to these proteins
3)you can attatch a radioactive element to these antibodies
4)then when you inject them into the body, you can take a picture using a camera that picks up radiation.
-this is useful because you can find a potentially harmful blood clot before it harms the patient
59
How can monoclonal antibodies be used to find blood clots?
Why is this useful?
1)when blood clots, proteins join together to form a mesh.
2)monoclonal antibodies can bind to these proteins
3)you can stretch a radioactive element to these antibodies
4)then when you inject them into the body, you can take a picture using a camera that picks up radiation.
-this is useful because you can find a potentially harmful blood clot before it harms the patient
60
How can monoclonal antibodies be used to diagnose cancer?
1) antibodies labelled with a radioactive element.
2)labeled antibodies given to patient through a drip.
3)when they come into contact with cancer cells they bind to tumor makers
4)a picture of the body is taken through a camera that detects radioactivity
5)doctors can then tell where the cancer is what size it is and if it’s spreading
61
How come monoclonal antibodies used in cancer treatment only stick to the cancerous cells not normal ones?
Because cancer cells have proteins on there cell membrane called tumor markers.
62
How can monoclonal antibodies be used to target drugs to cancer cells?
1) Anticancer drug attached to monoclonal antibody and antibody given to patient through drip
2)antibodies target cancer cells because they only bind to tumor markers
3)the drug kills cancer cells but not normal cells near the tumor
63
Why can monoclonal antibodies that treat cancer be better than radiotherapy?
Because they don’t affect normal cells aswell like radiotherapy and other drugs
This means the side effects are lower
64
What are antibiotics used for?
Antibiotics treat bacterial infections
65
How do antibiotics work?
Example…
Antibiotics work by disrupting processes in bacterial cells but not in the host organism.
Eg- they can inhibit the building of cell walls in a bacteria and this prevents it from dividing and eventually kills then.
66
Why don’t antibiotics destroy viruses?
viruses reproduce inside your body cells
|
|—->difficult to kill a virus without killing the body’s cells
67
What are the 2 ways of drug testing?
Preclinical testing
Clinical testing
68
What is preclinical testing?
1)drugs are tested on human cells and tissues in a lab.
2) test the drug on live animals. This helps find out if the drug works, the right dosage and if it’s toxic
69
What is clinical testing?
1) if drug passes animals, it’s onto human volunteers.
2) tested on healthy human volunteers
3)tested on people suffering from the illness. Optimum dose is found
4) patients randomly put into 2 groups. One is given the drug, one is given the placebo.
5)when the drugs passed all the tests it has to be approved by a medical agency
70
How are bacteria grown in a lab?
What form is the growth medium in?
They are grown in a growth medium which contains carbs, minerals and proteins they need to grow.
The growth medium can be a nutrient broth solution or solid agar jelly
71
What do antibiotics do?
Antibiotics kill bacteria inside the body
72
What do antiseptics do?
Antiseptics kill bacteria outside the body.
73
Practical to investigate the effect of substances on bacterial growth…
1) place paper disks soaked in differnt antibiotics on agar plate that has bacteria on it.
2)antibiotics should diffuse into the agar jelly. Bacteria resistant to the antibiotics will continue to grow. Antibiotics that aren’t resistant will die.
3)make sure you have a control disc that’s not soaked in antibiotics
4)leave plate for 48 hours at 25 degrees
5)the more effective the antibiotic, the bigger the inhibition zone will be.
74
What is an inhibition zone on an agar jelly?
Area that bacteria have died in
75
What are the aseptic techniques we need to use when investigating the effect of substances on bacterial growth?
- petri dishes and growth medium sterilised
-petri dish stored upside down to stop drops of condensation falling onto the agar
76
How do we compare the results of the effectiveness of antibiotics or antiseptics on bacteria?
What does it mean the larger one is?
We compare the sized of inhibition zones. The lager it is, the more effective the antibiotic is.
77
How do you calculate the area of an inhibition zone?
78
What is cardiovascular disease?
Example
Any disease associated with the heart of blood vessels.
Eg- Heart attack or stroke
79
Lifestyle factors associated with disease?
-A diet with too many or too few nutrients.
-not getting enough exercise.
-diet high in fat and sugar
-drinking too much alcohol is linked with liver disease.
80
How can smoking cause cardiovascular disease?
-nicotine increases heart rate which increases blood pressure.
-high blood pressure damages artery walls which contributes to a build up of fatty deposits.
-fatty deposits restrict blood flow which can lead to a heart attack or stroke
81
Wide ranging effects of non-communicable diseases…
-in areas of high levels of smoking there may be a high occurrence of non communicable diseases. This stresses hospitals
-NHS has to provide reasources for the treatment of patients
-they’re very common . Eg cardiovascular disease is the number one cause of death worldwide
82
How do we calculate BMI?
83
How to calculate waist-to-hip ratio?
84
How to calculate waist-to-hip ratio?
85
What is an artery?
An artery is a BLOOD VESSEL that carries blood AWAY from the heart
86
What can too much cholesterol in the blood lead to?
Fatty deposits to build up in arteries , restricting blood flow.
87
What can fatty deposits in the arteries cause?
Blood clots to form which can block blood flow to the heart, making it deprived of oxygen and causing a heart attack
88
What lifestyle changes can be implemented to treat cardiovascular disease?
Why are lifestyle changes often implemented first to treat CVD?
- regular exercise
-stop smoking
-loose weight
-eat a balanced, healthy diet
losing in saturated fat.
They don’t really have any downsides
89
3 drugs used to reduce the risk of heart attack or stroke? And how do they do if
-statins
Reduce cholesterol levels in bloodstream. Slows down rate that fatty deposits form, reducing the risk of strokes.
-anticoagulants
Make blood clots less likely to form
-antihypertensives
Reduce blood pressure. Helps prevent damadge to blood vessels
90
What is a stent?
Stents are tubes that are inserted inside arteries. They keep them open ensuring blood can pass through to heart muscles
91
How can a heart be replaced?
A heart can be replaced with a donor heart.
92
How can excercise cause weight loss?
It required energy, this burns calories
This reduces fat built up
Water loss
93
How does a gastric band help someone loose weight ?
Reduces volume of stomach
Reduces amount of food entering stomach
94
Benefits of stem cells that can be reprogrammed to become ____ stem cells (3)
They can produce any cell type
Less chance of patient rejecting their own cells
No more need for ____ stem cells
95
What surrounds the genetic material in a virus ?
A capsid
96
Human physical barriers to pathogens?
-skin, if it’s cut pathogens can get in
-mucus, traps pathogens in throat and nose
-cillia, moves pathogen along in different places
97
Human chemical barriers to pathogens ?
-stomach acid, low ph so will kill pathogens on food
-lysozyme, breaks down pathogens (tears )
98
What do Phagocytes do (immune system response to pathogens)
Engulf pathogens
99
What do lymphocytes do in protecting the body from pathogens (immune system response)
Produce antibodies
100
How does the body know there’s a pathogen in it?
There are difffernt antigens on the pathogens that the body doesn’t recognise
101
What are lymphocytes and what’s their role?
White blood cells
Antibodies produced by lymphocytes make pathogens stick together and make it easier for phagocytes to engulf them
102
Treatments of cardiovascular disease?
-stents (small things that open up the artery )
-statins (lower cholesterol which is the fat around the arteries)
103
Plant defenses to disease…
-waxy cuticle (protective coat on leaves)
-cell walls
104
What’s special about hybridoma cells?
Can produce antibodies ( thanks to lymphocytes)
Divide rapidly (thanks to the cancerous cell)
105
2 types of tumors and what they are…
Benign - not dangerous , haven’t spread to other tissues
Malignant- dangerous , have spread to other tissues
106
Factors increasing cancer survival rates …
Better treatment and tech
Better diagnoses
Better public health awareness
107
What does atherosclerosis mean ?
What is it a result of ?
Hardening of the arteries, result of a build of up fatty acids (plaques)
108
How does atherome happen ? ( fatty deposit)
Cells gather chemicals from the blood, including cholesterol
109
Whats an aneurysm?
Blood built up behind a blockage , causing artery wall to bulge and weaken.
Wall splitting and internal bleeding occurring
110
Symptoms of a myocardial infarction…
Servers chest pain
Spreads into jaw and arms
Constant or sudden pains
111
What’s a stroke?
Where is the bleeding ?
Interruption of blood supply to the brain
Bleed from damaged vessels
Blockages in main vessels cause serious strokes.
112
What’s a vector ?
Example….
Vector = organism that carries disease
Eg- mosquito
113
What’s a bacterium ?
Non-invasive pathogen that replicates and releases toxins, making a person ill
114
What cells does HIV infect?
CD4 cells
115
Why is HIV so hard to treat?
Replicates rapidly, means vaccines are unable to treat all the mutations
116
What’s neutralisation?
Stopping the cells from reproducing
117
What’s agglutination?
Sticks them together so they can be killed more easily
118
Why do we need we need develop new medicines ?
-combat new mutated diseases
-diseases develop resistance or mutate
-decrease side effects
119
2 categories of disease treatment
Treatment (stop the disease)
Pain relief (paracetamol)
120
What’s antibiotic resistance ?
Where bacteria become resistant to antibiotics
121
What ‘humanises’ hybridomas ?
Genetic engineering.
Replaces much of the antibody with the corresponding human antibody structure
