Topic 5 EQ3 Flashcards
What are players ?
Individuals, groups or organisations with an involvement or interest in a particular issue
What are the three fundamental problems in the water world?
Physical distribution, the gap between rising demand and diminishing supplies and the water availability gap
What percentage of the worlds water supply are contained in just ten countries?
60%
Potential population growth by 2030
+ 3 billion people
How are rising standards of living leading to a rising demand?
- countries such as China adopt meat-rich diets which lead to higher consumption of water for agriculture
- increased domestic use for drinking, bathing and cleaning as people become more affluent
- rising demand for electronics encourages more water in manufacturing
How can economic growth lead to a rising demand?
Increases demand for water in all economic sectors (agriculture, industry, energy and services). The mining of unconventional sources of energy such as fracking puts huge demands on water.
How can irrigated farming lead to water insecurity ?
The countries bordering the Aral Sea have the highest water use per capita in the world with around 99% being used for irrigated crops
Why is there a diminishing supply available from groundwater aquifers?
- irrigation
- cheap pumping technology, minimal legislation and climate change induced droughts have led to a falling water table
-the groundwater supplies are being extracted faster than they can be replenished
Why can groundwater no longer be regarded as an unlimited supplement ?
It’s being diminished by overuse. Supplies are being extracted faster than they can be replenished.
What is the water availability gap concept?
An imbalance of usage with richer countries usage which use up to 10x more water per head
What is embedded water?
Known as virtual water which come embedded in all the farm products , food and manufactured goods that are imported.
When does physical scarcity occur?
When more than 75% of a countries blue water flows are being used
When does economic scarcity occur?
When the development of blue water sources is limited by lack of capital, technology and good governance
What is the macro scale physical factor determining the supply of water?
Climate determines annual and seasonal distribution of precipitation.
How can atmospheric pressure systems determine the water supply?
Varies the precipitation with the low pressure zone of mid latitudes and equatorial regions having the highest totals.
How does topography affect the supply of water?
High relief promotes increased precipitation and rapid run-off but may also provide greater opportunities for surface water storage in natural lakes and artificial reservoirs.
How can geology affect the supply of water?
Geology controls the distribution of aquifers that provide groundwater storage. Permeable chalk and porous sandstones can store vast quantities of water underground which is valuable as it is not subject to evaporation loss.
How can the water supply from springs be accessed?
From wells which give an even supply of water throughout the year, despite uneven distribution of rainfall - provided they are not overused by demand which is faster than the natural recharge rate.
What is the crisis caused by over-digging of tube wells?
Massive abstraction and a falling water table combined in many places with a less predictable pattern of rains.
Impact of human activities on the security of supply
- diminishing supply and rising demand
- impact both quantity and quality
How many people are without safe water?
1 billion
How many people in China use contaminated water daily?
300 million
Annual water related illnesses in China
190 million
Why is groundwater contamination serious?
If important aquifers are irreversibly damaged by high levels of toxicity people can be affected by arsenic poisoning - 137 million people world wide
What is the green revolution?
Use of high yield varieties of crops along with the use of agrochemical and irrigation to increase yields.
Impacts of untreated sewage disposal
Causes water borne diseases such as typhoid,cholera and hepatitis.
Impact of the use of chemical fertilisers
Contaminates groundwater as well as river causing eutrophication in lakes and rivers.
Impacts of industrial waste being dumped into river and oceans.
Heavy metals and chemical waste are particularly toxic
What are the regional and local drivers of increased water demand?
Population growth, migration and urbanisation, rising living standards, economic development and industrialisation.
Impact of the removal of fresh water from aquifers on coasts
It can upset the natural balance of saline and fresh water and can lead to salt water incursion and salinisation of wells, boreholes and wetlands.
What is the water poverty index?
An assessment of the degree of water shortage and the subsequent water insecurity problems.
What is water insecurity ?
Not having access to sufficient safe/clean water.
How many people are still without access to safe water ?
1 billion
How much is spent each year worldwide by a number of players including international agencies and government?
$35 billion
How can physical scarcity be overcome ?
Technology and capital investment
What 3 factors are related to the problem of water insecurity?
Availability - having a water supply and a distribution network
Access - freedom to use or income to buy water
Usage - entitlement to and understanding of water use and health issue
What is the main determinant of physical scarcity?
Climate - balance between precipitation inputs and evapotranspiration outputs
Significant regional factors of physical scarcity
Continentality and topography
Significant local factor causing physical scarcity
Geology
Main cause of economic scarcity
Developing countries that lack capital and technology and good governance .
What factors if the price of water determined by?
- physical costs of obtaining the supply
- the degree demand for water
- infrastructure
- the supplier
How can the physical cost of obtaining the supply of water affect the price of water?
In some cities, the water has to be piped for many KMs from mountain reservoirs.
How can demand affect the price of water?
If water is scarce the price increases to manage demand and the poor miss out
How can infrastructure affect the price of water ?
Slum districts have to rely on water tankers, stand pipes and bottled water. The cost of water form informal vendors are nearly twice that of standard tap connections.
How can the supplier affect the price of water?
Water supplied by private companies that charge the market price for it (Barranquilla, Columbia) poor people lose out again. In Cuba the government subsidises water to ensure it is available for all.
Argument for the privatisation of water
Market mechanisms would simultaneously conserve water, improve efficiency and increase service quality and coverage.
Argument against the privatisation of water
Subsidies would end so all consumers would be charged at the price it costs to capture, treat and deliver. Private companies see water as a commodity for which a profit should be made.
What are structural adjustment programmes?
Neo-liberal policies promoted by the world bank and IMF to help developing countries overcome their debt problems. The privatisation of utilities was seen as Essen as existing systems were inefficient.
What happened in Cochabamba, Bolivia, in 1999-2000?
A protest against privatisation where a local company was given a monopoly and charged very high prices. Months of protesting by 80,000 people and street battles, the company fled.
How is agriculture leading to environmental concerns .
- around 30% of irrigation is provided using dams . Irrigated land becomes waterlogged leading to salination of soils
- the majority of irrigation is pumped up electrically from aquifers leading the groundwater depletion
How is the dietary revolution leading to pressure on water supplies?
In countries such as China, there has been a huge rise in the consumption of dairy and meat. It takes 3000 litres to produce 1kg of rice but it takes nearly 6x more to produce 1kg of beef
Maxim for irrigated system
More crop per drop
Original size of the Aral Sea
Fourth largest inland sea (68,000 sq km)
First cause for the Aral Sea
In the late 1950’s, the Soviets diverted water from the Amu Daryu and Syr Darya rivers which fed the Aral Sea, for irrigation of agriculture.
What had happened to the Aral Sea by 2007?
The Sea had declined to 10% of its original size and had split into separate lakes.
Why did the former soviet government intervene with the Aral Sea?
The began an ambitious irrigation scheme to develop fruit and cotton farming in an unproductive region and create job for millions.
How was the fishing community affected by the Aral Sea?
Once prosperous industry that employed 60,000 people has collapsed. Now the region faces unemployment and economic hardship.
How have local residents been affected by the Aral Sea?
Health problems are caused by wind blown salt and dust from the dried out sea bed. Drinking water is heavily polluted because of weapons testing , industry and fertiliser/pesticide runoff . Infant mortality rates are among the highest in the world with 10% of children dying in their first year
How has the Aral Sea affected the Uzbekistan government ?
The irrigation schemes allowed the poor country to become one of the worlds largest exporters of cotton.
How has the Aral Sea impacted biodiversity?
Only 160 out of the 310 bird species remain
Percentage of withdrawals worldwide for industry and energy
20%
Consequence of rapid industrialisation
Contamination of rivers and groundwater affecting water quality
How is water used in energy sector?
For generating HEP or for cooling thermal or nuclear power stations.
What are countries that rely heavily on HEP affected by?
Changing patterns of rainfall
Why are the growth of biofuels an area for concern?
The crops grown to produce bio ethanol and bio diesel need 10,000 and 20,000 litres for 1 litre of each
How does water and disease interact?
Unsafe drinking water can spread disease but water used for personal and domestic hygiene.
What is the fundamental cause of water related diseases?
A lack of sanitation which contributes to 10% of the global disease burden
Why is open defecation a serious issue ?
Diarrhoeal diseases are transmitted by faecal-oral routes
Why is community hygiene more important than water shortage in developing countries?
Lack of sanitation leads to high levels of morbidity as they affect peoples ability to work and look after their families and therefore their ability to escape poverty
How can infections be contracted?
Washing in surface water polluted with faeces
What have been the developments in eradicating water-related diseases?
NGOs such as the Gates Foundation for malaria and WaterAids project to provide clean water and improved sanitation
What is the most important factor stopping improvements in water related diseases?
Poverty
why is there potential for conflict when demand overtakes available supply?
competing demands for irrigation, energy and industry within and between countries
between 1948 and 2008, how many conflicts were as a result of water
out of 2000 international conflicts, 2/3s were caused by water
what are the different types water conflicts?
- quantity of water available
- diversion of water such as building of dams
what is the most likely scenarios for conflicts to develop into wars?
on transnational boundary where water is just one item of the agenda
Why is there a water issue between israel and palestine?
Israel refuses to accept that water should be shared equally. they insist on over 2/3s of extraction
what is the impact military imbalances on basins?
- in the Jordan basin, downstream israel can threaten upstream jordan to leave the water alone
Example of a groundwater conflict
Israel and Palestine over the use of mountain aquifers. Israel has very advanced abstraction technology and is sucking up all the water.
Why is shared groundwater highly complex?
- boundaries are unclear underground : difficult to negotiate
- UN legislative on water sharing of aquifers is only just being written.
What is nimbysim ?
‘Not in my backyard’ - people protesting about development
Why has the reservoir in South East England been disputed?
Nimbyism for the environmental and Socio-economic impacts
How long is the River Nile?
6700km
What percent of Africa does the Nile Basin cover?
10%
How many countries compete for the Nile?
11
What percent of flow does the white Nile provide?
30%
Why is the Blue Nile the greatest contributor to Nile flows?
the heavy monsoonal rainfall from July to September makes it the greatest contributor.
Impact of seasonal variations in flows on the Nile
Leads to problems with building on the basin and affects farmers. The drought and flood cycles impacted the planning and building of the high dam
How is the Nile susceptible to major inter-annual and decades fluctuations?
El Niño and La Niña
Impact of the river system being located in a hot arid area
Evaporation losses are higher especially in the Sudd area. Between entry and exit of the Sudd swamp the white Nile loses 50% of its flow. Leads to early summer water shortfalls when the Blue Nile is at a pre-monsoonal point.
Current population which live within the Nile Basin and what it is expected to be in 2030
300 million and 600 million
How dependent is Egypt on the Nile?
Egypt is dependent on the Nile for 95% of its water needs
Why do countries on the Nile need large supplies of water ?
States such as Rwanda and Ethiopia need large supply to develop crop irrigation, hep production and industrial processing to lift their nation out of poverty
How will water scarcity impact the Nile?
Impact food security as Egypt already uses high levels of virtual water
What was the Nile Waters Agreement 1929?
Gave 86% of the water of the Nile to Egypt and Sudan and 14 % to the rest of the countries. As Egypt is the downstream nation they were given the right to veto any modifications to the Nile’s water
What was the 1959 Nile’s water agreement ?
Gave 100% of water to Egypt and Sudan . The agreement was signed by colonial powers who felt that all the upstream countries had enough water from other sources. Ethiopia refused to recognise the legitimacy of the agreement.
How has the history of the Nile affected the basin?
Unfair allocation of the Nile’s water. For example , Ethiopia has low capture of water but Egypt and Sudan have high capture
What is the Nile Basin Initiative ?
Joint decision making of the Nile water
Progress since 2005 with the NBI
Nine of the ten Nile basin countries have been exploring the development of the NBI In partnership with the world bank to establish a common vision.
What is the 2010 water treaty signed by Ethiopia, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda?
States that all riparian countries should have equal rights to Nile waters. Egypt and Sudan are being urged to sign the treaty as they are politically weaker.
The social on managing water supply?
The social players see access to clean safe water as a human right
Political view on managing water
See water as a human need which can be provided through the market, government and NGOs. The infrastructure is costly so Governments have to find a mechanism to pay for it to satify
Economic view on water supply
Keep pace with rising demand and favour hard engineering projects such as desalination and mega dams. Top down approach ensure efficient delivery but can disregard people’s wishes. These schemes also have high environmental and social costs
What are water transfer schemes?
The diversion of water from one drainage basin to another either by diverting the river itself or by constructing a large canal.
Why should the UK have a water grid?
Wet Northwest and dry Southeast - a factor exacerbated by projected climate change. The population in the South East is expected to grow by 1 million by 2025.
Why was the water grid ruled out ?
The energy intensive need for pumping, the difficulty to get private water firms to co-operate and high costs
Examples of inter-regional pipeline transfers
Lake District to Manchester
Welsh reservoirs to Liverpool and Birmingham
Long term consequences of transfer schemes
Lead to long-term changes to local and regional hydrological conditions which can increase flood risk, damage fish stocks, spread disease and pollution.
How does the water transfer affect the source area?
- experiences a drop in flow by up to 60% as a result of diversion
- low flow and pollution increases the impact on the ecosystem’s salinity
- climate change and low flows can lead to water scarcity
How does a water transfer affect the receiving area?
- availability of water simply leads to greater use
- increased use for development
- promotes unsustainable irrigation farming
- Nitrate eutrophication, salination and ecosystem destruction
What is a top down scheme?
Large scale capital intensive development schemes usually developed by governments
What is a bottom up scheme?
Small scale development schemes
What is the South-North transfer project in China?
- 2003
- cost up to $100 billion
- transfer 44.8 billion cubic metres of water per year to the north
- 1300km canal
Why are future mega dam plans being planned for the future?
- China is the Worlds leading dam builder and as part of its FDI programme in Africa, they are building dams
- global concerns about global warming makes HEP a way to provide clean energy
- there are plentiful sites to build HEP to fuel economic growth
How will the China North-South transfer be funded?
60% central government and the rest coming from local authorities which charge domestic and industrial users.
What is included in the South-North China transfer?
Water conservation, improved irrigation, pollution treatment and environmental protection
What are the risks and uncertainties associated with the China South?
- ecological and environmental impacts
- resettlement
- worsening water quality
What is desalination?
Draws from supplies from the ocean as opposed to the one percent of freshwater supplies
What are the recent technological developments in desalination?
The reverse osmosis process which makes it cost effective compared to the cost of freshwater exploitation
Why will the costs of desalination decrease overtime?
Technological development - future advent of carbon nanotube membrane require less pressure and therefore greater energy efficiency.
What are the environmental impacts of desalination?
Left over water returned from desalination has twice the salt concentration of sea water. Dumping it near the shoreline will have adverse consequences on coral reefs and food webs
Why do OPEC countries use desalination?
- water scarce
- additional advantage of cheap energy from burning fossil fuels
What is the economic sustainability of water?
Guaranteeing security of access to water for all groups at an affordable price
How is economic sustainability achieved ?
By minimising wastage and maximising efficiency
Why water conservation important in sustainability?
Manages demand in the various economic sector. For example, agriculture in which there are many ways that it can be made more effective
What are sprinklers and surface flood irrigation systems being replaced with?
Modern automated spray technology and more advanced drip irrigation systems
What is grey water?
Recycling of city waste water for agricultural use as it doesn’t need to be of drinking water quality
How has empowering farming communities to make their own decisions been successful?
- numerous intermediate technology solutions to water conservation such as magic stones which is practiced across the Sahel
What is the magic stones system?
Water conservation technology practised in the Sahel in which lines of 5-10 cm high stones are laid along the contours of a hill to prevent soil erosion and conserve soil moisture
What are second generation genetically modified crops tolerant too?
Drought and salty conditions - these include strains of maize, millet and wheat which are vital food crops.
What is hydroponics?
A method of growing plants using mineral solution without soil.
How does hydroponics increase crop yields ?
Crops are grown in a huge greenhouse that is temperature and carbon dioxide controlled
What is the issue with hydroponics?
Energy intensive and costly
How can businesses conserve water?
Recycle waste water as grey water. For example, coca cola bottling factories clean all their waste water in their plants for cleaning bottles and machinery
How has legislation and costs made businesses recycle more water?
Legislation prohibiting the use of groundwater and the rising costs make businesses more water conscious . For example, in Beijing there is zero liquid discharge rules of the dumping of water into environment which makes businesses recycle water by purifying it for grey water
Examples of Domestic water conservation
- Reducing consumption by the installation of Smart meters which can monitor water usage
- Rain harvesting using water butts
How can domestic water conservation be enforced?
Hosepipe and sprinkler bans
Benefits of filtration technology domestically
Very little dirty water that cannot physically be purified and recyc
How has Singapore reached water self sufficiency?
- Artificial rain catchments
- Treating sewage water: Water cleaned by a combination of dual membrane technology and ultraviolet disinfection produces water that exceeds WHO quality - provides 30% of Singapores drinking water and is called Newater
What are the main strategies for reducing water demands?
Recycling, grey water use and reducing consumption
What is water restoration?
Returning water environments to their natural state
How can water be restored on a local scale?
Restoring meanders, replanting vegetation and using sustainable methods to manage water courses to provide alternate environment for all users.
Example of water restoration scheme
Largest project is the restoration of the Northern part of the Aral Sea in Kazakhstan
What is the integrated water resource management ?
A process which promotes the co-ordinated development and management of water and land to maximise economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising sustainability.
How can cooperation take place during water insecurity?
- Management of water demand
- Management of political aspect : mutual cooperation between competing users
How do researchers see the water crisis?
A crisis of water management rather than water shortage
How is the basin treated in the IWRM?
A geographical unit for strategic planning which makes cooperation between basin users central. The basin is treated holistically to protect environmental quality and to ensure maximum efficiency and equitable distribution
What are satellite images and water accounting used for?
To determine how water there is at various times of the year and how productively it’s used and how it could be improved.
Where is IWRM practical ?
At the community level but the larger the basin the more complex it becomes
Three main feature from IWRM
Freedom from corruption
Food and water security for poor
Environmental protection
Sustainable management of groundwater management
- Aquifer storage and recovery (reuse)
- Ground water quality and quantity modelling
Sustainable management of waterway management
- river rehabilitation
-sustainable water allocation - waterway health
- environmental flows
- waterway structures
Sustainable management of integrated urban water management
Water treatment technology
Water sensitive urban design
Water harvesting and reuse
Sustainable management of monitoring technologies
Sensor technologies
Real time wireless monitoring and control systems
What percent of drainage basin agreement resulted in military conflict in the last 60 years?
0.5%
What is the 1960 Indus Water Treaty?
India and Pakistan share the river despite going to war twice since signing which shows optimism.
Why is Africa as a continent the most politically dispersed?
90% of all surface water is trans boundary
What concepts should be included in international treaties under the Helsinki Rules?
Equitable use
Equitable shares
What is the criteria for water sharing?
Natural factors
Social and economic needs
Downstream impacts
Dependency
Prior use
Efficiency
