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Biology A level > Topic 1- Glossary > Flashcards

Topic 1- Glossary Flashcards

1
Q

Cardiovascular diseases

A

Diseases of the heart and circulation

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2
Q

Coronary heart disease

A

One of the two main forms of cardiovascular disease, the other being stroke.

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3
Q

Stroke

A

Symptoms of this include: sudden onset, numbness, dizziness, confusion, slurred speech and blurred or loss of vision.

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4
Q

Haemorrhagic stroke

A

This occurs when a blood vessel supplying blood to the brain bursts.

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5
Q

Diffusion

A

Random movement of particles from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration until equilibrium is reached.

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6
Q

As an organism gets bigger it’s_____________ decreases.

A

Surface area to volume ratio

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7
Q

Open circulatory system

A

Some animal groups have this system, in which the blood circulates in large, open spaces.

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8
Q

Closed circulatory system

A

A system where the blood is enclosed within tubes.

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9
Q

Single circulatory system

A

Type of circulation found in fish, where the blood only flows through the heart once for each complete circuit of the body.

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10
Q

Double circulatory system

A

Type of circulatory system where the blood flows through the heart twice for each complete circuit of the body.

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11
Q

Ventricles

A

Muscular chambers of the heart which pump blood out of the heart.

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12
Q

Polar molecule

A

A molecule with an uneven distribution of charge.

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13
Q

Hydrogen bond

A

A weak attraction between two electronegative atoms. Between water molecules these occur between the negatively charged oxygen atom of one molecule and the positively charged hydrogen of another molecule.

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14
Q

Hydrophilic

A

Water-loving

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15
Q

Hydrophobic

A

Water-hating

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16
Q

Arteries

A

A muscular blood vessel carrying blood away from the heart.

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17
Q

Arteries divided repeatedly to form _____________.

A

Arterioles

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18
Q

Capillaries

A

Blood vessels composed only of epithelial cells and a basement membrane.

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19
Q

Venules

A

Small blood vessel, intermediate between capillary and vein.

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20
Q

Veins

A

A blood vessel which returns blood to the heart.

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21
Q

Collagen

A

A fibrous protein, which provides tensile strength without much elasticity.

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22
Q

Elastic tissue

A

Fibres which stretch, found in the artery wall.

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23
Q

Smooth muscle

A

Type of muscle (involuntary muscle) found in walls of some blood vessels. These lack the obvious striations of skeletal muscle.

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24
Q

Endothelium

A

Single layer of cells lining the blood vessels.

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25
Q

Lumen

A

The cavity inside any tubular part of an organ.

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26
Q

Vena Cava (superior and inferior)

A

The major vein(s) which returns blood from the body to the heart.

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27
Q

Pulmonary artery

A

Vessel carrying blood from the heart to the lungs.

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28
Q

Pulmonary vein

A

Vessel carrying blood from the lungs back to the heart.

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29
Q

Aorta

A

Major vessel carrying blood from the heart to the rest of the body.

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30
Q

Atrio-ventricular valves

A

These open when atrial pressure exceeds ventricular pressure.

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31
Q

Semilunar valves

A

Valves between ventricles and arteries leaving the heart

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32
Q

Systole

A

Contraction of the heart, forcing blood out at high pressure. May be used to describe just the concentration of the ventricular, unless qualified.

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33
Q

Diastole

A

Period of relaxation of the heat muscle during the cardiac cycle.

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34
Q

Pulse

A

Can be felt where an artery passes over a bone close to the skin

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35
Q

One way valves

A

Pocket like flaps within the vein, preventing back flow of blood.

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36
Q

Skeletal muscles and breathing

A

Action of both of these assist the return of blood to the heart in the veins.

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37
Q

Coronary arteries

A

The two vessels which supply the heart muscle with blood

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38
Q

Cardiac cycle

A

One complete sequence of filling and pumping blood

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39
Q

Atherosclerosis

A

The disease process that leads to coronary heart disease and ischaemic stroke, where atheromas can either block an artery directly, or increase its chance of being blocked by a blood clot.

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40
Q

Thrombosis

A

Formation of a blood clot that may block an artery

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41
Q

Myocardial infarction

A

Alternative term for heart attack

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42
Q

Endothelial damage

A

One of the first steps in the course of events leading to atherosclerosis.

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43
Q

Inflammatory response

A

Part of the course of events leading to atherosclerosis, involving white blood cells.

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44
Q

Cholesterol

A

Deposits of this on an artery wall is called an atheroma, but it is also needed in formation of animal cell membranes.

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45
Q

Atheroma

A

Deposit an arterial wall, mainly composed of cholesterol, which has not yet had a build up of calcium salts or fibrous tissue. Occurs as a result of endothelial damage and the subsequent inflammatory response.

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46
Q

Plaque

A

Found on the inner wall of an artery, this hard swelling reduces the elasticity of arteries. It causes arteries to narrow and can lead to an increase in blood pressure.

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47
Q

Positive feed back

A

Where the action of something leads to an increase in a response

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48
Q

Platelets

A

Cell fragments without a nucleus involved in formation of blood clots.

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49
Q

Thromboplastin

A

The complicated series of reactions that leads to clotting starts with the release of this substance that catalysts the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin.

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50
Q

Prothrombin

A

A soluble plasma protein that is inactive, but can be converted to an active enzyme.

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51
Q

Thrombin

A

The active enzyme that catalyses the conversion of soluble fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin in a series of cascade reactions.

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52
Q

Fibrinogen

A

During blood clotting, insoluble fibrin protein is made from this soluble plasma protein.

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53
Q

Fibrin

A

These strands form a mesh that trap red blood cells.

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54
Q

Cascade

A

A complex series of chemical changes within the blood, where completion of one step triggers the next chemical reaction resulting in formation of a clot.

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55
Q

When a tissue does not receive enough blood (and therefore oxygen) it becomes ___________.

A

Ischaemic

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56
Q

Angina

A

Chest pain when heart muscle does not receive enough oxygen, due to narrowing of coronary arteries.

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57
Q

Anaerobic respiration

A

What heart muscle is forced to do when insufficient oxygen is available.

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58
Q

Lactic acid

A

Product of anaerobic respiration that causes the pain of angina.

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59
Q

Arrhythmia

A

Irregular heart beat

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60
Q

Aneurysm

A

A bulge in an artery wall, due to narrowing of the lumen. If it ruptures, it could be fatal.

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61
Q

Electrocardiogram

A

The normal and abnormal electrical activity of the heart can be detected by studying these.

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62
Q

CAT (computerised axial tomography)

A

A series of X-rays which can be used to produce a 3D image.

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63
Q

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

A

One technique used in hospitals to check for a suspected stroke. Radio waves are used to create images of the brain. This technique is also used for breast scans and other images.

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64
Q

Risk

A

The probability of occurrence of some unwanted event or outcome.

65
Q

Probability

A

The numerical chance that the event or outcome will occur.

66
Q

There is a tendency to overestimate the risks of sudden imposed dangers where the consequences are severe, and underestimate a risk if it has an effect in the long-term, even if that effect is severe- this is described as the __________ of risk.

A

Perception

67
Q

Risk factor

A

Things that increase the chance of a harmful outcome

68
Q

Epidemiological studies don’t prove that certain factors cause the disease in question. It is often useful to set up experiments with controlled variables and a null hypothesis to check if a factor actually ____________ a disease.

A

Cause

69
Q

Epidemiologists are scientists who study epidemics. They also look for links between various factors that might cause the disease and the incidence of the disease i.e. They look for a ___________.

A

Correlation

70
Q

Correlation

A

The relationship between two variables such that a change in one of the variables is reflected by a change in another variable.

71
Q

Null hypothesis

A

A statement that assumes (for the sake of the argument) that there will be no difference between an experimental group and a control group and then testing this statement using statistical analysis.

72
Q

Epidemiologist

A

Professional scientists who study risk factors associated with human health. They use various types of experimental methods including control of variables and null hypothesis.

73
Q

Cohort study

A

A study where a group of people are followed over time to see who develops the disease.

74
Q

MONICA study

A

MONItoring trends and determinants in CArdiovascular disease study.

75
Q

Case-control study

A

A study where a group of people with the disease are compared to a group who do not.

76
Q

For a case-control study the population studied must be __________ of the whole population.

A

Representative

77
Q

Valid

A

Results are this, if they measure what they are supposed to, and if they are and reliable

78
Q

Reliable

A

If the method is this, it will mean that when the method is repeated then the repeated values are all close together

79
Q

Hypertension

A

Another term for high blood pressure. Elevated blood pressure is considered to be one of the most significant factors in the development of cardiovascular disease.

80
Q

The maximum blood pressure when the heart contracts. For a healthy person this should be ______

A

Systolic pressure 100-140mmHg

81
Q

The blood pressure when the heart is relaxed. for a healthy person this should be ________

A

Diastolic pressure 60-90mmHg

82
Q

Sphygmomanometer

A

Traditional device for measuring blood pressure

83
Q

Blood pressure

A

Refers to a hydrostatic force of blood against the walls of a blood vessel. higher in arteries and capillaries compared to veins

84
Q

Kilopascal

A

SI unit of pressure

85
Q

mmHg

A

Medical unit of pressure

86
Q

Contact between blood and the walls of the blood vessels causes friction, this is known as ……….

A

Peripheral resistance

87
Q

Tissue fluid or interstitial fluid

A

Formed by fluid forced out of capillaries. Differs from the blood chiefly in containing no suspended blood cells and in having lower protein levels.

88
Q

Lymph

A

Fluid derived from tissue fluid within the vessels of the lymphatic sytem

89
Q

Oedema

A

Swelling of tissue as a result of abnormal tissue fluid accumulation

90
Q

Osmosis

A

The movement of water from a less concentrated solution (containing more water) to a more concentrated solution (containing less water) through a semi-permeable membrance

91
Q

Carbohydrates

A

Organic compounds with the general formula Cx(H2O)n. Common examples are sugars, starch and cellulose

92
Q

Carlories

A

The quantity of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1cm3 of water by 1C

93
Q

Kilojoule

A

The SI unit for measuring energy

94
Q

Monosaccharide

A

Single sugar units such as glucose

95
Q

Disaccharide

A

Formed when 2 sugars have combined in a condensation reaction

96
Q

Polysaccharide

A

Formed from many sugar units joined by condensation reactions

97
Q

a - glucose

A

Isomer of glucose found in starch

98
Q

B - glucose

A

Isomer of glucose found in cellulose

99
Q

Condensation reaction

A

A reaction in which 2 molecules become connected by a covalent bond and a molecule of water is released

100
Q

Glycosidic link

A

The connection between monosaccharides formed by the removal of water

101
Q

Hydrolysis

A

The process whereby the connection between two molecules can be broken by the addition of water, e.g. the breakdown of lactose into glucose and galactose

102
Q

Immobilised enzymes/lactose

A

Can be immobilised for industrial use, thus allowing higher temperatures to be used for some reactions and /or the product to become less contaminated

103
Q

Lactose intolerance

A

Asian and Afro-Caribbean people have a particularly high rate of this. They can only drink milk that has had the milk sugar broken down into simpler sugar

104
Q

Lactase

A

Enzyme that hydrolyses the lactose in milk

105
Q

Sucrose

A

Disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose

106
Q

Lactose

A

Disaccharide composed of glucose and galactose

107
Q

Maltose

A

A disaccharide produced when amylase breaks down starch. Found in germinating seeds

108
Q

Starch

A

An a-like polymer of glucose, used by plants as a means of storing energy

109
Q

Amylose

A

A molecule of starch, with an un-branched chain of 200-5000 a(1,4)-linked glucose molecules

110
Q

Amylopectin

A

Highly branched polysaccharide component of starch consisting of a(1,4)-linked and a(1,6)-linked glucose units

111
Q

Glycogen

A

A carbohydrate stored in the liver, highly branched, the numerous ends of the molecule each simultaneously digestible by amylases. Consists of a(1,4)-linked and a(1,6)- linked glucose units

112
Q

Cellulose

A

The most abundant polysaccharide, occurring as the main structural cell wall material in plants. Consists of a long chain of B(1,4)- linked glucose units

113
Q

Dietary fibre

A

Food components which resist digestion in the intestine

114
Q

Lipids

A

Fats and oils

115
Q

Triglycerides

A

A simple lipid in which three fatty acids are combined with one molecule of glycerol

116
Q

Fatty acids

A

A molecule with a long hydrocarbon tail and a carboxyl group at the other end

117
Q

Glycerol

A

A three carbon alcohol with three hydroxyl group, the linking component of phospholipids and triglycerides

118
Q

Saturated

A

A hydrocarbon where all the carbons in the compound are connected by single bonds, so that it contains the maximum number of hydrogen atoms

119
Q

monounsaturated

A

Description of lipids with at least one double bond between the carbon atoms in their structure

120
Q

polyunsaturated

A

Description of lipids with a larger number of double bond between the carbon atoms in their structure

121
Q

cholesterol

A

Steroid lipid forming a major component of animal cell membranes, is also a precursor of some steroid hormones

122
Q

essential fatty acids

A

fatty acids the body needs but cannot synthesise

123
Q

linoleic acie

A

a deficiency in this essential fatty acid results in scaly skin, hair loss and slow wound healing

124
Q

basal metabolic rate

A

the minimum energy requirement to keep an organism alive and maintaining essential processes e.g. breathing

125
Q

metabolic rate

A

the rate at which reactions in the body take place

126
Q

obesity

A

Condition where the BMI is greater than 30. Overweight

127
Q

Body mass index

A

Body mass in kg divided by height in metres squared, gives this internationally accepted method of classifying people

128
Q

Waist to hip ratio

A

This ratio may give a better indication of risk for CVD than BMI measurements

129
Q

Insulin

A

A hormone, synthesised in the pancreas, that promotes the conversion of glucose to the storage compound glycogen

130
Q

Type II diabetes

A

Diabetes which presents later in life that is increasing as adults become overweight. It seems to involve lower insulin secretion and tissue resistance to insulin action

131
Q

lipoproteins

A

Insoluble cholesterol is combined with proteins to form these soluble substances that can be transported in the blood

132
Q

HDL-high density lipoprotein

A

Formed from unsaturated fats, cholesterol and protein, containing more protein than the other kind. Tend to remove cholesterol from the blood by transporting to the livers where it is broken down.

133
Q

LDL-Low density lipoprotein

A

These carry more cholesterol than the other kind, so this affects their density. They are formed from saturated fats and can overload membrane receptors resulting in high levels of blood cholesterol

134
Q

Carbon monoxide

A

Gas produced in cigarette smoke which binds to haemoglobin instead of oxygen

135
Q

Nicotine

A

Chemical found in cigarette smoke that stimulates the production of the hormone adrenaline

136
Q

Many chemicals in smoke!

A

Cause endothelial damage in arteries, found in cigarette smoke

137
Q

Inactivity

A

The British Heart Foundation considers this to be one of the most common risk factors for heart disease

138
Q

Familial hypercholesterolaemia

A

A inherited disease where a single gene mutation results in elevated blood cholesterol

139
Q

Apolipoprotein

A

The protein component of lipoproteins, major role in stabilising lipoproteins and binding to lipoprotein receptors on cell membranes

140
Q

Where genetics, physical environment, social environment and lifestyle behaviour all contribute to the risk, we say the disease is ……

A

Multifactorial

141
Q

Free radicals

A

Highly reactive compounds with an unpaired electron

142
Q

Antioxidants

A

Found in some vitamins, these protect against damage by reactive, unstable, free radicals to cell components. They work by providing hydrogen atoms which stabilise the free radical by pairing up with its unpaired electron.

143
Q

Salt

A

Too much of this on your diet causes your kidneys to retain water, resulting in elevated blood pressure

144
Q

adrenaline

A

Stress can cause the release of this hormone. It results in constriction of arteries and arterioles, raising blood results

145
Q

ethanal

A

The compound that alcohol is converted to in the liver, which may end up in VLDLs and increase the risk of plaque deposition

146
Q

antihypertensives

A

sympathetic nerve inhibitor drugs, prevent constriction of blood vessels

147
Q

ACE inhibitors

A

A drug which reduces the synthesis of angiotensin II, the hormone which csuses vasoconstriction of blood vessels

148
Q

Calcium channel blockers

A

Drugs which block Ca2+ channels in muscle cells lining the arteries, preventing muscle contraction

149
Q

Diuretics

A

A type of drug used to reduce tissue fluid retention

150
Q

Statins

A

Chemicals which lower cholesterol levels in the blood by inhibiting the enzyme in the liver associated with cholesterol production. also have an anti-inflammatory effect

151
Q

Omega-3 fatty acids

A

Polyunsaturated fatty acids found in oily fish, linked to a reduction in heart disease and joint inflammation

152
Q

Sterols and stanols

A

compounds found in plants that have a similar shape to cholesterol, but are minimally absorbed in the gut. Reduce cholesterol levels, in particular LDL cholesterol levels.

153
Q

Aspirin

A

Antiplatelet drug - reduces stickiness of platelets

154
Q

Clopidogrel

A

Anticlotting drug used in conjunction with the above

155
Q

Warfarin

A

Anticoagulant drug that works by reducing the tendency of blood to form clots

156
Q

Coronary angioplasty/balloon angioplasty

A

Insertion of a tiny balloon into an artery which when inflated may improve the passage of blood flow

157
Q

Coronary artery bypass

A

An operation where a blood vessel (from the leg) is used to replace a blocked section of an artery.

158
Q

What is the difference between a hormone and an enzyme?

A

A hormone- Chemical messenger

An enzyme- Biological catalyst

Biology A level (12 decks)

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